# A grammar of Tuatschin

A Sursilvan Romansh dialect

Philippe Maurer-Cecchini

Comprehensive Grammar Library 3

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Editor: Martin Haspelmath

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# A grammar of Tuatschin

A Sursilvan Romansh dialect

Philippe Maurer-Cecchini

Philippe Maurer-Cecchini. 2021. *A grammar of Tuatschin: A Sursilvan Romansh dialect* (Comprehensive Grammar Library 3). Berlin: Language Science Press.

This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/308 © 2021, Philippe Maurer-Cecchini Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-96110-318-8 (Digital) 978-3-98554-014-3 (Hardcover)

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5137647 Source code available from www.github.com/langsci/308 Collaborative reading: paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=308

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# **Acknowledgments**

Firstly, I would like to thank all the native speakers of Tuatschin who offered me their time and patience. Special thanks are due to Tarcisi Hendry, who established the contact with almost all my consultants. The other native speakers who were of great help are, in alphabetical order, Leci Brugger, Nicolina Cathomen-Giossi, Nescha Cavegn, Leci Deflorin, Pascal Gamboni, Lucia Giossi, Vigeli Giossi, Beatrix Graf, Beni Hendry, Cecilia Hendry, Wendelin Hendry, Nina Levy, Laura Loretz, Nicoletta Marino, Ciril Monn, Giusep Monn, and Riccardo Monn.

I would also like to thank Sabine Stoll and Michele Loporcaro for having asked me to participate in their project on the acquisition of Tuatschin (see below).

Martin Haspelmath, Michele Loporcaro, and the five anonymous reviewers of Language Science Press made precious comments about earlier versions of this grammar.

Claudia Cathomas and Tresa Bundi-Pally helped me with some transcriptions, and Sebastian Nordhoff as well as Felix Kopecky helped me to resolve the many difficulties I had with TexStudio and LaTex.

Alys Boote Cooper was kind enough to correct my English.

To all these people I would like to say *in grond grazia fetg!*

Last but not least, many thanks to the Swiss National Science Foundation (project no. 159544 about the acquisition of Tuatschin Sursilvan by children between 2 and 6 years) who covered my hotel and meal expenses.

Wetzikon (Switzerland), November 2020

# **List of abbreviations**


1 introduces an attributive infinitive clause


<sup>2</sup> introduces a finite or non-finite argument clause

<sup>3</sup> introduces an infinitive clause modifying an adjective

<sup>4</sup> introduces a finite or non-finite clause

# **1 Introduction**

The canton of Grisons is located in south-east Switzerland and is officially a trilingual canton, with German as the main language, followed by Romansh and Italian. This grammar is about a Romansh variety.

Romansh has six different written standard varieties. Five of them developed naturally out of the contact between Latin and not clearly identified substrate languages: Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Putér, and Vallader. In the Protestant parts of Romansh Grisons, the varieties started to be written in the 16th century, mostly for religious purposes (Putér, Vallader, and Sutsilvan), and in the Catholic parts a century later (Sursilvan and Surmiran).

Rumantsch Grischun is an artificial language createdby Heinrich Schmid in 1982 on behalf of the Lia Rumantscha, the umbrella association of all the Romansh language organisations. Heinrich Schmid was a Romance philologist from the University of Zurich (Switzerland). Rumantsch Grischun is used above all for official purposes by the canton of Grisons and the Swiss Confederation.

Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Putér and Vallader are used as the language of instruction in their respective areas; Rumantsch Grischun is only used in the Surmiran area. However, after the vote on July 24, 2020, Surmiran will be reintroduced as the language of instruction up to the fourth grade of primary school in 2021.

Tuatschin is a Sursilvan dialect spoken in the uppermost part of the Sursilvan area by approximately 800 to 1000 people. It is the Sursilvan dialect that differs the most from the Sursilvan standard variety. These differences, however, do not concern the most salient typological features of Sursilvan like the predicative *-s* of masculine singular adjectives and participles (see §3.3.1 and §4.1.2.1), nouns and adjectives with stem alternations as *iart* (m.sg) vs *òrts* (m.pl) 'garden(s)', and *matgiart* (m.sg attributive) vs *macòrts* (m.sg predicative as well as m.pl, both attributive and predicative) 'ugly', or the conservation of the Latin diphthong au like in *aur* 'gold'.

Some differences between Tuatschin and Standard Sursilvan concern palatalisation phenomena, the treatment of monophthongs and diphthongs, some pronominal and verbal forms, the form of the negator, and the form of the dative marker. Table 1.1 lists some of these differences.

### 1 Introduction


Table 1.1: Differences between Tuatschin and Standard Sursilvan

Figure 1.1 shows the distribution of the three languages of Grisons with its dialects. The label 'Tuatschin' on the map also comprises the Medelin dialect, spoken to the east of the Tuatschin area.<sup>1</sup>

Figure 1.1: Languages and dialects of the Canton of Grisons https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46241682 CC-By-SA 4.0 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ User:Terfili

<sup>1</sup>There is a mistake in the legend of the map: It should be *Putér* instead of *Putèr*.

1.1 Previous works

### **1.1 Previous works**

The most important linguistic study on Tuatschin is Caduff (1952), *Essai sur la phonétique du parler rhétoroman de la Vallée de Tavetsch*, which is about the diachronic phonetic development from Latin to Tuatschin. Some information about Tuatschin can also be found in Hendry (2010), *Tujetsch, ses vallers e lur tschontscha*. Maurer (2017) analyses the marking of the indirect object from a diachronic perspective.

There are some works containing Tuatschin texts and sentences; these will be mentioned in the next section.

### **1.2 Corpus**

The corpus consists of oral and written sources. The oral corpus consists of two parts. The first part contains recorded narratives that were collected by myself on several field trips between 2016 and 2021 with seven female and ten male native speakers of Tuatschin. It consists of approximately 95 minutes of recorded stories told by male and female consultants between 30 and 82 years of age at the time of recording; they are published in Chapter 8. The second part consists of elicited forms and sentences. Since I have a working knowledge of Standard Sursilvan, all interviews were conducted in Romansh.

The most important written source of Tuatschin texts is Büchli (1966), *Mythologische Landeskunde von Graubünden. 2. Teil: Das Gebiet des Rheins vom Badus bis zum Calanda*, which contains about 60, mostly short, traditional legends from the Tujetsch valley (specifying the village the storytellers were from) which were transcribed by the author himself. Büchli's consultants were born between 1858 and 1922.

The oldest texts I had access to was *Il ratun tschiec* 'The blind rat', which was published in 1889, and a transcribed text from the Schorta collection recorded in 1926 and published in Valär (2013a) and Valär (2013b). Some sentences and dialogues can be found in the *Dicziunari rumantsch grischun*, in Gartner (1910), Gadola (1935), Francestg Berther (1998), and in Baseli Berther (2007).

The examples taken from the written sources were all adapted to the spelling system used in this book, with one exception, namely those written in IPA: Gartner (1910), as well as Valär (2013a) and Valär (2013b).

### 1 Introduction

The names of the consultants who participated in the project have been anonymised; their utterances will be labelled with a reference to their gender (f, m), and the place where they grew up. The female native speakers of Tuatschin consulted are listed in Table 1.2 and Table 1.3, whereas the male native speakers are listed in Table 1.4 to Table 1.6. These lists contain their year of birth, the place where they grew up, and the mother tongue of their parents.


Table 1.2: List of consultants I

Table 1.3: List of consultants II


Table 1.4: List of consultants III


All consultants speak Tuatschin, Standard Sursilvan, Standard and Swiss German, and they are used to writing in Standard Sursilvan and in Standard German. The young generation in general also uses Tuatschin in SMS and other social media.

### 1.3 Dialectal differences


Table 1.5: List of consultants IV

Table 1.6: List of consultants V


Some decades ago, the people from Tujetsch would not use their own dialect with people from outside the Tujetsch valley, and still today some people are reluctant to speak Tuatschin with anybody who speaks Standard Sursilvan or another Sursilvan dialect. One of my consultants puts it this way:

(1) *I* expl *drùva* need.prs.3sg *schòn* indeed *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *da* attr *saprèndar* refl.take.inf *anzjaman* together *da* comp *raṣdá* talk.inf *da* of *Tujétsch* pn *cun* with *autars.* other.m.pl 'It needs indeed some [effort] to concentrate in order to speak Tuatschin

with others.' (Zarcúns, m2)

This explains in part why my consultants sometimes use Sursilvan forms when speaking with me.

### **1.3 Dialectal differences**

There are two main Tuatschin dialects: the dialect of the upper part of the Tujetsch valley (Figure 1.2), which comprises the villages of Selva and Tschamut<sup>2</sup> ,

<sup>2</sup>According to DRG (7: 636), the inhabitants of Selva and Tschamut are called *quèls dadajns gl uaut* 'those above the forest'.

### 1 Introduction

and the dialect of the lower part of the valley (Figure 1.3), from Rueras to Bugnei. These two dialectal areas are divided by a forest called the forest of Sontga Brida (Caduff 1952: 3).

Figure 1.2: Upper Valley (Tschamut and Selva) plus Dieni and Rueras from the Lower Valley. Source: Federal Office of Topography swisstopo.

The identical place names in this and in the following figure which are not in boxes refer to train stations.

The differences between the two dialects are mostly lexical, whereby the divergent forms of the upper dialect correspond in general to Standard Sursilvan. Some examples are presented in Table 1.7 (Hendry 2010: 97).

Nowadays there are very few speakers of the upper dialect left; an example of the variety of Selva is presented in §8.6.

### **1.4 The contact languages of Tuatschin**

The contact languages of Tuatschin are Standard Sursilvan, Swiss German, and Standard German. In this chapter only some few remarks will be given, since the subject is complex and could easily fill a book-length publication.

Figure 1.3: Lower Valley from Rueras to Bugnei and Mumpé Tujetsch. Source: Federal Office of Topography swisstopo. In spite of its name, Mumpé Tujétsch is located outside the Tujetsch vally.


Table 1.7: Differences between the upper and the lower dialect

### 1 Introduction

Standard Sursilvan is the language of instruction in school and is used among Tuatschin native speakers for written communication.

Contact with Swiss German starts at an early age through contact with Swiss German speakers who have a vacation house in the Tujetsch valley, or with tourists, and also with relatives who live in the German part of Switzerland and who do not understand Romansh.

Standard German starts being taught in school from the fifth form of primary school onwards and is also present through Swiss German and German television. Broadcasts in Romansh are very scarce. Currently there is a ten-minute news broadcast from Monday to Friday, a broadcast for children on Saturday that lasts ten minutes, and a cultural broadcast on Sunday which lasts 25 minutes. Therefore most broadcasts children (and adults) watch are in German.

On a more general level, all Romansh varieties have been in contact with German, Swiss or Standard, for a long time. Liver (2010: 176–181) states that Romansh has been in contact with German since the time of Old High German (ca. 750– 1050). Loans from OHG are for instance (I cite the Tuatschin forms) *gljut* 'people' (< OHG liut), *uaut* 'forest' (< OHG wald), or *lubí* 'permit' (< OHG laubjan).

More modern loans are e.g. *ajfach* 'simply' (< Swiss German *eifach*),*clétg* 'luck' (< German *Glück*), *halt/hald* 'simply' (< German *halt*), *ṣchubargjè* 'clean' (< Swiss German *suuber mache*), *stédi* 'diligent' (< German *stetig*), *schliat/schljats* 'bad' (< German *schlecht*). Germanisms which some older native speakers remember but which they do not use any more are *zug* 'train', *banhòf̱* 'train station' *landstròs̱* 'way', and *hauptstròs̱* 'main way'.

Discourse particles of Swiss German (or Standard German) origin are very often used. Examples are *ábar* 'but' (< German *aber*), *álṣò* 'this is to say' (< German *also*) *sò* 'well, OK' (< German *so*), or *zuar* 'though' (< German *zwar*).

Semantic broadening is also frequent. An example is *unfrènda* 'sacrifice, casualty', which is derived from Middle Latin offerenda (Decurtins 2012: 1283) whose Romance meaning is 'sacrifice' and its German one 'casualty'.

Calques are also very frequent, especially in the domain of the particle verbs (see §4.1.3). Other examples are *mètar avaun* 'imagine' (< German *sich vorstellen*) (note that the Romansh synonym is not reflexive) *curdá sé* (< German auffallen), or *fá cun* 'participate' (< German *mitmachen*).

Sursilvan loans are less frequent than Germanisms, which is undoubtedly related to the fact that a huge part of the lexicon Tuatschin shares with Standard Sursilvan has the same form in both varieties.

Examples of sursilvanisms occurring in the corpus are *bugèn* 'gladly' instead of *ugèn*, *dumigná* 'cope' instead of *dumagnè*, *èl* 'in the (m)' instead of *ál* or *ájl*, *muossavía* 'signpost' instead of *mùssavía*, *Musté* instead of *Mustajr* 'Mustér', *ni*

1.5 Examples and glosses

'or; right' instead of *né*, *pi* 'more' instead of *plé*, *pènṣjunada* 'retired (f.sg)' instead of *panṣjunada*, *sa* 'knows' instead of *sò*, *si* 'up' instead of *sé*, *uaul* 'forest' instead of *uaut*, *uost* 'August' instead of *uést*.

A phonetic influence of Sursilvan is the use of [ʁ] instead of [r], which is not frequent among the native speakers I have consulted, but which one often hears when younger people or children speak Tuatschin.

### **1.5 Examples and glosses**

Elicited examples will get a reference to the consultant as listed in Table 1.2 to Table 1.6 as well as to the place where they grew up, and examples taken from the oral corpus (published in chapter 8) will get, in addition, a reference to the section in chapter 8.

The glosses used in this grammar are those of the Leipzig Glossing Rules,<sup>3</sup> to which some glosses have been added.

In order to save space, gender is only indicated on the first element of the noun phrase, except in cases where two or more elements of a noun phrase differ in gender. Only plural is indicated since singular is not marked. Indicative mood is not indicated, in contrast to subjunctive, conditional, and imperative mood.

### **1.6 Place names**

In the Romansh examples and texts, I will use the spelling system of this book for the place names. In the English text, I will use the official Sursilvan spelling.

I will not use the German equivalents of the Romansh place names, except if they are used by the consultants themselves.

The place names which occur in this book are presented in Table 1.8. The German and Italian equivalents are only given for those place names that are located in German- or Italian-speaking areas.

<sup>3</sup>https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php


Table 1.8: Spelling of place names

# **2 Phonology**

### **2.1 Vowels**

Tuatschin possesses nine vowels which are presented in Table 2.1. Minimal pairs are listed in Table 2.2.


Table 2.1: Vowels

The reduced vowels [ə] and [ɐ] only occur in unstressed syllables. There are no minimal pairs contrasting [ə] and [ɐ], and the distribution of these two reduced vowels is not clear to me. It seems as if in certain cases a speaker may use [ə] or [ɐ] in the same environment; there is, however, a tendency for [ɐ] to occur in the neighbourhood of stressed [a], as in [ju ˈmaːvɐ] 'I used to go', and for [ə] to occur in the environment of [e] or [ɛ], as in [ˈrwɛrəs] 'Ruèras'. Because of this uncertainty, these two vowels will not be differentiated and both will be represented by <a>, respectively by /ɐ/.

In contrast, [e] and [ɛ] generally occur in stressed syllables in non-compound words, but in some loanwords they may occur in unstressed syllables, as is the case of the second [ɛ] in /*ˈgɛnɛral*/ 'general (adj.)'.

There are long and short vowels in Tuatschin, but minimal pairs contrasting long vowels with short vowels do not seem to exist. In unstressed syllables, only short vowels occur, but in stressed syllables, there are both short and long vowels. They will not be represented orthographically, but in the Tuatschin word list

### 2 Phonology

(chapter 9), all the lexical entries will be followed by a phonetic transcription indicating lengthening of the vowels.

Regarding [ʊ] and [u], Liver (2010: 130) notes for Standard Sursilvan that [ʊ] mostly occurs in short syllables, whereas [u] mostly occurs in long syllables, with some exceptions. In Tuatschin, there is at least one minimal pair which opposes the two vowels in a short syllable: /ʥu/ 'had' (participle of *vaj* 'have') vs /ʥʊ/ 'down'. The realisation of /ʊ/ varies between a nearly closed [u] and a very closed [o].

In my corpus, the close front rounded [y], represented by *ü*, only occurs in recent loans from German or Swiss German. It is not included in Table 2.1. Examples are *bürò* 'office', *mütòlògia* 'mythology', and *tüp* 'person'.<sup>1</sup>

Table 2.2 presents some minimal pairs contrasting short vowels on the one hand, and contrasting long vowels on the other.


Table 2.2: Vowel minimal pairs

### **2.2 Diphthongs**

In Tuatschin, diphthongs consist of the glides /j/ and /w/ as well as /i/ and /u/ in combination with /ə/. Tuatschin possesses five falling and ten rising diphthongs. Table 2.3 shows the diphthongs with /j/ and /w/. Note that /ɔw/ is very rare and

<sup>1</sup>The Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, and Surmiran varieties do not possess close-front and close-mid front rounded vowels except in recent German loans, in contrast to the Ladin varieties (Putér, Vallader, and Jauer) which possess /y/ and /ø/, as in *tü* 'you (sg)' or *magöl* 'glass'. In Sursilvan /ø/ also exists in recent German loans: *töf* 'motorbike', which is pronounced *téf* by old people.

2.2 Diphthongs

only occurs in the inverted forms of the first person singular present indicative forms of /saˈvaj/ 'know' and /vaj/ 'have': /sɔw/ 'know I' and /vɔw/ 'have I'. The following diphthongs do not occur: /ɔj/, /ʊj/, /uj/, /jʊ/, /ɛj/, /ɛw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ʊw/, /uw/, /wɔ/, /wʊ/, and /wu/.

The falling diphthong /uɐ/ is not very frequent. An example is /ˈʃkuɐ/ 'broom'. Minimal pairs with diphthongs are rare in the corpus; there are only oppositions between /aj/ and /ej/, as in /najf/ 'snow' vs /nejf/ 'new', or /majl/ 'apple' vs /mejl/ 'honey'.


Table 2.3: Diphthongs

The diphthong /aj/ is pronounced [aj] or [æj].

The difference between diphthongs and vowels in hiatus is not always straightforward. A spontaneous production of /piun/ 'lard' with /i/ and /u/ in hiatus is found in (1).

(1) *La* def.f.sg *mùm'* mother *ò* have.prs.3sg *méz* put.ptcp.unm *ajn* into *piún.* lard.m.sg 'Mother added some lard.' (Sadrún, m5)

But when asked whether *piun* has one or two syllables, the consultant answered that it has only one syllable and pronounced it [pjun]. Caduff (1952: 3f.) notes the same problem for the diphthong /iɐ/, which is sometimes pronounced [jɛ] or [je]. An example from the corpus is *sté̱diamajn* 'diligently', which is pronounced [ˌʃtediaˈmajn], but which also could also be pronounced [ˌʃtedjaˈmajn].

### 2 Phonology

However, there are uncontroversial cases of hiatus, as e.g. /fuˈajna/ 'fireplace', /uˈɔn/ 'this year', or /uˈawt/ 'forest', which are never pronounced /ˈfwajnɐ/, /wɔn/ or /wawt/, in contrast to *uéstg* /wéʃʨ/ 'bishop'.

Hiatus across word boundaries is usually avoided. There are two strategies. The first and generally used one is the elision of the last vowel of the first word if it is a weak vowel (*ə* and *ɐ*, both spelled <a>), as in *Quaj vèz' ò uschéja* 'This looks like that' instead of *vèza ò*. Example (2) contains two examples of the weak vowel <a> which is elided (*bigj' idéa* for *bigja idéa* and *stad' ajn* for *stada ajn*), a well as one example of strong vowels that do not trigger elision (*ju èra*).

(2) *Núa* where *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.m.sg *hòtè̱l?* hotel *Bigj'* neg *idéa,* idea *ju* 1sg *èra* be.impf.1sg *schòn* already *ònṣ* year.m.pl *bigja* neg *stad'* cop.ptcp.f.sg *ajn* in *quaj* dem.m.sg *martgau.* city 'Where is this hotel? No idea, I hadn't been in that city for years.' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)

The other, much less frequent strategy, is to insert an epenthetic *n* between the two words as in (3), where *n* is inserted between *vasèva* and *ins*.

(3) *Vasèva-n* see.impf.3sg-euph *ins* gnr *ina* indef.f.sg *signjura* woman *[…] cun* with *schuba* skirt.f.sg *cuérta,* short *còtschna,* red *[…] lura* corr *spitgavan* expect.impf.3pl *als* def.m.pl *purs* farmer.pl *ina* indef.f.sg *grònda* big *malaura* storm *[…].*

'If one saw a woman with a short skirt, a red one, the farmers would expect a heavy storm.' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 34)

This epenthetic *n* tends to be used in written Standard Sursilvan; the more usual strategy would be elision like in *vasèv' ins*.

### **2.3 Consonants**

Tuatschin possesses 26 consonants which are presented in Table 2.4; consonant minimal pairs are shown in Table 2.5.

The four consonants /h/, /x/, /ŋ/, and /ʣ/ have a restricted distribution and do not have a phonemic status.

### 2.3 Consonants


Table 2.4: Consonants


The other 21 consonants do have a phonological status as can be seen in Table 2.5.

/l/ and /r/ have different realisations according to the speaker. Some speakers pronounce /l/ as [ł] although its distribution is not yet clear, and the uvular /ʁ/ is not uncommon among younger speakers.

Furthermore, /r/ and /l/ may have a syllabic realisation due to the dropping of [ɐ] between consonants as in [pr] vs [pɐr] 'for' (§ ̩ 8.1), [ˌpr.mɐ.ˈvɛ.rɐ ] vs [ˌpɐr.mɐ. ̩ ˈvɛ.rɐ] 'spring' (§8.16), [pr.vɐ.zɛ.dɐrs] vs [pɐr ̩ .vɐ.zɛ.dɐrs] 'herdsmen' (§ ̩ 8.6), [tr] vs ̩ [tiɐr] 'at, by' §8.4), [pr.ˈsu.lɐ] vs [pɐr.ˈsu.lɐ] 'alone ( ̩ f)' §8.4) [ʃtr.mɐn.ˈtus] vs [ʃtɐr. ̩ mɐn.ˈtus] 'terrible' (§8.2) or [pls] vs [pɐr ɐls] 'for the' § ̩ 8.7).

The voiced stops /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ are sometimes realised as voiceless consonants like in [ˈab̥ər] 'but'; however, this is never the case with the voiced palatal fricatives /z/ and /ʒ/.

### 2 Phonology

Table 2.5: Consonant minimal pairs


In rare cases, the voiceless stops show an aspirated realisation, as in [əmˈpʰaw] 'a bit' (§8.4) or [pʰas] 'pass' (§8.7).

There are some cases of assimilation of consonants across word boundaries. In (4), *détg di* 'said to' is realised as [detːi], and in (5), *détg: té* 'said: you' is pronounced [detːe].

(4) *[...] api* and *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *di* def.dat *mùma* mother *[...].*

'[...] I said to my mother [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

2.3 Consonants

(5) *Pi* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *èla* 3sg *détg:* say.ptcp.unm *«Té* 2sg *savèssaṣ* can.cond.2sg *í* go.inf *cul* with.def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *[...].* 'Then she said: "You could go up with your grandfather [...].' (m4, §8.3)

There are also some cases where complex consonant clusters are avoided, like for instance [ʨs], which is sometimes pronounced [ʦ] like in [maʦ] instead of [maʨs] 'bunches' (§8.11).

In rapid speech /ʨ/ may be realised as an unreleased consonant, yielding a sound that is close to the glide /j/. Examples are *létg/léj* 'bed' (§8.3), *hanlétg/hanléj* 'business' (§8.9), or *atgnamajn/ajnamajn* 'actually' (§8.16).

A major problem in analysing consonants is the question whether the voiceless word final consonants should be considered as such or as underlyingly voiced. For instance, in Standard Sursilvan the 1st person singular conditional is written *cantass* 'I would sing', but in Tuatschin when followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant, it is pronounced /z/, as in *stèṣ* /ʃtɛz/ (6).

(6) *[...] álṣò* well *sch'* if *ju* 1sg *stèṣ* must.cond.1sg *aun* still *fá* do.inf *in'* one.f.sg *jèda* time *quaj,* dem.unm *figès* do.cond.1sg *ju* 1sg *bétga.* neg

'[...] well, if I had to do it once more, I wouldn't do it.' (Sadrún, m10, §8.7)

Other examples are 'not even' and 'eight'. 'Not even' is spelled *gnanc* in Standard Sursilvan, but in Tuatschin it is pronounced with [ɡ] instead of [k] if it is followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant, like in /ɲaŋg in/ 'not even one'. 'Eight' is a similar case since it is spelled *otg* in Standard Sursilvan, but if it is followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant it is pronounced [ɔʥ] like in [ɔʥ ɔns] 'eight years' (§8.15). However, in *òtgònta* 'eighty' *òtg* is pronounced [ɔʨ] and not [ɔʥ].

If all final voiceless consonants were pronounced voiced when followed by a voiced element, it would be very easy to establish the rule that every voiceless consonant in word final position is pronounced voiced if followed by a vowel or a voiced consonant. However, this is not the case. In [in brˈiɐk əd in kʊp] 'a wooden bucket and a bowl' /k/ is never pronounced [ɡ]: [in \*brˈiɐɡ əd in kʊp]. The same holds for *ljuc* 'place': [in ʎuk ˌɐmpɐrˈnajval] 'a cosy place' vs [in \*ʎuɡ ˌɐmpɐrˈnajval]. A further example is [fjuk] 'fire' whose diminutive is [fjuˈkɛt] and not [\*fjuˈɡɛt].

### 2 Phonology

Therefore I will deviate from the Standard Sursilvan spelling and write voiced consonants in case they are pronounced voiced when followed by a voiced element, and the rule will be formulated as follows:

Every word final voiced consonant is pronounced as voiceless in isolation or preceding a word starting with a voiceless consonant, whereby *j*, *m*, and *n* behave like voiceless consonants.

That the nasals behave like voiceless consonants is demonstrated by the opposition between *gjuvan* /ˈʥuvɐn/ 'young (m.sg)' vs *gjufna* /ˈʥufnɐ/ 'young (f.sg)'.

The consequences for the spelling system used in this book will be discussed in §2.5.

### **2.4 Syllable structure**

Tuatschin possesses open and closed syllables, short and long. Long syllables (represented by VV in the table below) are realised by long vowels as well as by diphthongs. Consonant clusters occur in onset and coda position in a restricted way. The combination of two consonants in onset position is realised by a voiced or voiceless stop and /l/ or /r/; three consonants in onset position correspond to the same combinations but preceded by /ʃ/. In coda position, only two consonants occur (/rɛʃt/ 'leftover'), but if the plural suffix *-s* is added, three syllables also occur (/rɛʃts/ 'leftovers'). Some syllable types are presented in Table 2.6.

Tuatschin possesses words of one, two, and three syllables. Words with four or five syllables are rare and are usually compound words (/ʥu.vɐn.ˈteʨ.nɐ/ 'youth' or /ˌɔː.rɐ.ʥʊ.ˈzʊt/ 'underneath in direction down the valley'). More examples of polysyllabic words are to be found in Table 2.6.

Stress is fixed and can be placed on the ultimate (/ɐn.ˈtʊrn/ 'around' or /ɐn.ʦɐr. ˈdaː/ 'aerate the soil'), the penultimate (/mu.ˈvɐl/ 'cattle'), or the ante-penultimate syllable, which is rare (/ʦɐ.ˈɡrin.dɐ.rɐ/ 'Yenish woman').

An in-depth analysis of stress, especially of the distribution of secondary stress, must be left to further studies.

### **2.5 Spelling system**

The spelling system used in this grammar is a compromise between Standard Sursilvan spelling and the aim of making pronunciation and word stress transparent to the reader, which means that one grapheme has to correspond to one sound (or phoneme in most cases) (see Table 2.7 and Table 2.8).


Table 2.6: Syllable types


Table 2.7: Correspondences between spelling and IPA I


Table 2.8: Correspondences between spelling and IPA II

The problems that Standard Sursilvan spelling does not solve are


To disambiguate these problems, I will indicate with an acute accent <é, ó> that the vowel is close-mid, and with a grave accent that the vowel is mid (<è, ò>) or near close (<ù>). Voiced palatal fricatives get a dot under the *s* (<ṣ> for /z/ and <ṣch> for /ʒ/), as is the usage in Romansh bilingual dictionaries. The other cases will be explained below.

Stress rules are as follows:


### 2 Phonology


The reason for giving <n> and <s> special treatment is the fact that <n> is used for verbal plural and <s> for nominal and verbal plural. If <n> and <s> were treated like the other final consonants, many more diacritics would be used.

A further problem is the treatment of <s> followed by a consonant. Here, I follow the Standard Sursilvan spelling:


<sup>2</sup>Before consonants as well as before vowels other than *e* and *i*.

<sup>3</sup>Before *e* or *i*.

2.5 Spelling system

In the texts (Chapter 8) and hence also in the examples taken from these texts, the final consonants are transcribed as they are pronounced. An example is the word for 'ten', which can be transcribed [déjʃ] or [déjʒ] according to the context in which it occurs.

Table 2.7 and Table 2.8 present the correspondences between the spelling used in this grammar and the IPA phonetic alphabet.

Furthermore, the following orthographic signs are used to indicate elided vowels: <'> for vowels elided at the end of a word, as in *l'agid* 'the help' (instead of *la agid*), and <'> for vowels elided at the beginning of a word, as in *ò 'l détg* 'has he said' (instead of *ò èl détg*).

# **3 Noun phrase**

### **3.1 The noun**

### **3.1.1 Gender**

Tuatschin differentiates two genders, masculine and feminine, which are not restricted to natural gender, but natural gender and grammatical gender usually correspond.

Natural gender of humans and animates is either differentiated by two different words, or – exclusively with human nouns – the suffix *-a* (sometimes with the infix -*èss*-) is added to the masculine form (Table 3.1).


Table 3.1: Natural gender distinctions

*<sup>a</sup>*DRG (1: 60) notes the form *beáditga*, which my consultants do not know.

Some feminine counterparts of masculine animals which are listed in Spescha (1989: 239f.) are not in use in Tuatschín, as for example *cavalla* 'mare', *utschala* 'female bird', *purschala* 'sow'. In the case of *piartg* 'pig', the feminine counterpart is only used in a metaphoric sense: *ina pòrtga* 'a dirty girl'.

### 3 Noun phrase

Some animals take *taur* 'bull' and *vaca* 'cow' to distinguish male from female, as e.g. *in taur tscharva* 'a stag', *ina vaca tscharva* 'a hind', and still others use *bùc* 'buck' and *tgaura* 'goat' for the same purpose: *in bùc tgamù̱s* 'a chamois buck', *ina tgaura tgamù̱s* 'a female chamois', or *in bùc cavréjgl* 'a male roe deer', *ina tgaura cavréjgl* 'a female roe deer'. Where there are no such nouns differentiating natural gender, *fèmna* 'woman, female' and *máscal* 'male' are used if necessary.

### **3.1.2 Number**

Singular is not marked, and plural is formed by adding *-s* to the stem of the noun, respectively to any part of the noun phrase (except for masculine plural participles, which take *-i*), whether the stem ends in a vowel or in a consonant: *tgèsa* (f.) 'house' vs *tgèsas* 'houses', or *rusp* (m) 'toad' vs *rusps* 'toads'. If the noun ends in an <-s> or a <-z> (/ʦ/), there is no differentiation between singular and plural. In these cases the suffix *-s* is purely orthographic and is only attached to words ending in <-z>, as in (1).

	- '[...] we didn't have any money of our own.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

In words ending in <s>, no <-s> is attached, as in *patarnòs*, which is either singular or plural according to context.

There are some irregular plurals which are listed in Table 3.2 – Table 3.6.

The ending *-lts* is also realised *-ls*, without *t*: *cuntjals* 'knives' or *catschòls* 'socks'.

Masculine nouns with the diphthong /je/ or /ej/ in the stem change the diphtong to <ò> /ɔ/, whereby the nouns starting with palatal <tg> /ʨ/ depalatalize to <c> /k/.

Note that in contrast to Standard Sursilvan the plurals of *tgéjt* 'rooster' and *tgiarp* 'body' are usually *tgéjts* and *tgiarps* and not *còts* and *còrps* . 1

Some monosyllabic masculine nouns containing the falling diphthong /iə/ convert it into a rising diphthong /ja/: *culiar* vs *culjars* 'collar', *falian* vs *faljans* 'spider', *fiar* vs *fjars* 'iron', or *paliat* v. *paljats* 'arrow', *ṣchiarl* vs *ṣchjarls* 'kind of basket', *stiarl* vs *stjarls* 'one-year-old-calf', *tiarm* vs *tjarms* 'boundary stone', and *unviarn* vs *unvjarns* 'winter'.

In compound nouns it is usually the second noun which modifies the first noun. In such cases, it is only the modified noun, the head noun, which is pluralized:

<sup>1</sup> See also DRG (3: 595).


Table 3.2: Nouns: irregular plural I

Table 3.3: Nouns: irregular plural II


*<sup>a</sup>*The form *cavrial* is also used.

Table 3.4: Nouns: irregular plural III


### 3 Noun phrase

Table 3.5: Nouns: irregular plural IV


Table 3.6: Nouns: irregular plural V


*tiar-tgèsa* 'animal that does not go to the alpine pastures', pl *tiars-tgèsa*. Another example is (2).

(2) *[…] ju* 1sg *va<sup>2</sup>* have.prs.1sg *èra* also *príu* take.ptcp.unm *ansjaman* together *als* def.m.pl *quéns* bill.pl *da* of *tschèls* dem.m.pl *dus* two *tgau-s-tégja.* head-pl-alpine\_hut.f.sg

'[…] I have also assembled the bills of the other two heads of the alpine huts.' (Gadola 1935: 87)

There are, however, also other cases. In *tgauvitg* 'head of village', it is the modifying noun that is pluralised: *tgauvitgs*.

<sup>2</sup>The form *vaj* is incorrect in this position and should be replaced by *a*. *Vaj* is only used with subject inversion, *va(j) ju* 'have I'.

3.1 The noun

### **3.1.3 Collective nouns**

Some inanimate masculine nouns have a feminine singular counterpart which usually refers to collective or generic entities as well as to paired body terms, which cannot be pluralized or counted. Compare: *in tgérn* 'a/one horn' vs *tschun còrns* 'five horns' vs *la còrna* 'the horns'. The noun *pèra* 'pair (collective)' is only used with paired terms as *cazès* 'shoes'; with other entities, *pèrs* 'pairs' is used, as examples (3) and (4) show.


Some more examples of collective nouns are *blòc/blòca* 'block', *bratsch/bratscha* 'arm', *còtgal/còtgla* 'charcoal', *curnagl/curnaglja* 'Alpine chough', *dèt/dèta* 'finger', *crap/crapa* 'stone', *fégl/féglja* 'leaf', *fumégl/fumégla* 'farmhand', *grép/grépa* 'rock', *lèn/lèna* 'wood', *majl*/*majla* 'apple', and *pajr/pajra* 'pear'. In the case of *fiap* 'hollow', *fòpa* refers, not to a collective noun, but to a bigger hollow.

Examples (5–8) illustrate collective nouns in context.


'«Do pears have feet?» The mother said: «No, pears do not have feet.» Then the daughter said: «If pears do not have feet, then I have eaten a toad.»' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 53)

### 3 Noun phrase


In Standard Sursilvan some masculine paired body terms have a collective form which refers to both entities. In Tuatschin, this is the case with *bratsch* 'one arm' vs *bratscha* 'the two arms'. In Standard Sursilvan, *in ṣchanugl* refers to 'one knee', whereas *la ṣchanuglia* refers to 'both knees'. In Tuatschin, however, the feminine form – *ganuglja* – corresponds to the feminine singular, as in (9).

(9) *Basta,* enough *ah,* eh *par* subord *vagní* come.inf *cò* here *sén* on *quaj* dem.unm *Pardatsch* pn *al,* def.m.sg *al* def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *vèva* have.impf.3sg *aun* in\_addition *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *satagljèda,* refl.cut.ptcp.f.sg *ina* indef.f.sg *ganùglja* knee *vèva* have.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *tagljau* cut.ptcp.unm *sé* up *[...].* 'Enough, eh, in order to come back to Pardatsch, my grandfather, in addition, had had a cut, he cut his knee [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### **3.1.4 Bare noun phrases**

Bare nouns or noun phrases, in the sense of noun phrases without determiners, obligatorily occur with mass nouns and in indefinite plural object noun phrases. Bare nouns are very frequent in prepositional phrases, mostly with a locative meaning (see §4.2.3. Example (10) illustrates mass nouns, (11) an indefinite plural object noun phrase, and (12) a locative prepositional phrase.

(10) *[...] ins* gnr *duvrava* need.impf.3sg *magnùc* cheese.m.sg *a* and *tgarnpiartg.* bacon.m.sg

'[...] one needed also cheese and bacon.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

3.1 The noun

	- '[ ... ] but nowadays to find captains is not so easy.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

In rare cases, a bare noun may function as a direct object (13).

(13) Pi nus méz svagljarín […]. then have.PRS.1PL 1PL put.PTCP.UNM alarm\_clock.M.SG 'Then we set the alarm clock […].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

After the negator bétga a bare noun or noun phrase is frequent (14).

(14) Ábar quaj dèva bétga discusjun. but DEM.UNM give.IMPF.3SG NEG discussion.F.SG 'But there were no discussions.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

### 3.1.5 Conjoining of nouns

Nouns are joined by a 'and' (15) and né 'or' (16); né ... né is used for 'neither ... nor' (17).

purtgè (15) […] al tarségl vèvan dad DEF.M.SG swineherd and DEF.M.SG assistant have.IMPF.3PL COMP èssar ajn ... ajn tégja […]. COP.INF in in '[…] the swineherd and the assistant had to stay in … in the alpine hut [...].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

aun tg'adèra (16) Ins vèz' dau vidajn GNR See.PRS.3SG still COMP PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM into pùntgas né trádals […]. chisel.F.PL or power\_drill.M.PL

`One still can see that chisels or power drills had been used […].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 3 Noun phrase

(17) *A* and *lu* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* def.m.sg *signún* alpine\_dairyman *gju* have.ptcp.unm *né* neither *gròma* cream.f.sg *né* nor *latg.* milk.m.sg And then the alpine dairyman didn't have cream nor milk.' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 47)

### **3.2 Determiners and pronouns**

The determiners all precede the noun they modify and distinguish number and gender but not case. An exception is the definite dative article, which distinguishes number but not gender, and which attributes case to the noun phrase as its name indicates. The definite dative article, however is obsolescent.

The interrogative determiners and pronouns will be presented in §5.2.

### **3.2.1 Articles**

### **3.2.1.1 Definite article**

The definite article distinguishes between masculine and feminine as well as between singular and plural, yielding a system of four terms (Table 3.7).


Table 3.7: Definite article

The masculine form *al* is used before a noun or a nominalised adjective that starts with a consonant (18) and *agl/gl* with a noun that starts with a vowel, as in (19) and (20). *'l* is used after a word that ends with a vowel (21) and *l'* before an adjective or a determiner that precedes a masculine noun (22).

(18) *[...] al* def.m.sg *gròn* big *èra* cop.impf.3sg *racrut,* recruit.m.sg *a* and *tschèlṣ* dem.m.pl *duṣ* two.m.pl *ajn* in *amprèndissadi.* apprenticeship.m.sg '[...] the oldest was a recruit, and the other two [were] in an apprenticeship.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns


There is, however, one exception. Before the quantifier antir 'whole', it is not l' but gl that is used (23).

antir (23) Nuș vajn luvrau gl dé. 1PL have.PRS.1SG work.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG whole.M.SG day 'We worked the whole day.' (Sadrún, m5)

The masculine plural form als/als is used before consonants (24) and ls/ls before vowels. The form '1s/'1s occurs after a word ending in a vowel (25).

(24) A quaj ò da and DEM.UNM nowadays DEF.M.PL young.PL REL come.PRS.3PL out of scùla sadatan bétga gjù schi fétg cun in téc school.F.SG REFL.give.PRS.3PL NEG down so often with iNDEF.M.SG bit plé végls. more old м pl

'And nowadays the young people who come out of school do not want to have to do so much with those who are a bit older.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

3 Noun phrase

(25) *[...] cu* when *'ls* def.m.pl *purs* farmer.pl *vagnévan* come.impf.3pl *[...].*

'[...] when the farmers would come [...].' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

The feminine forms *la* and *las* occur before consonants; the forms *l'* (26) and *laṣ* occur before vowels.

(26) *A* and *sjantar* after *... òni* have.prs.3pl.3pl *ampustau* order.ptcp.unm *tùt* all *nùfs* new.m.pl *... pr̩* for *l'* def.f.sg *antira* whole *val.* valley 'And then … they ordered all new … for the entire valley.' (Surajn, f3, §8.1)

In combination with the preposition *da* 'of' and a place name, the definite article is used to form demonyms (27).

(27) *Als* def.m.pl *da* of *Tujétsch* pn *tégnan* hold.prs.3pl *aut* high.unm *quaj* dem.m.sg *ljuc* place *[…].* 'The people of Tujetsch uphold this place […].' (Camischùlas, Büchli 1966: 94)

This construction is not restricted to the inhabitants of villages or towns, but occurs with any habitable place (28).

(28) *[…] òn* have.prs.3pl *als* def.m.pl *da* of *tgèsa* house *détg.* say.ptcp.unm '[…] said those at home.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 68)

The prepositions *ajn* 'in, into', *cun* 'with', *par* 'for', *sé* 'up', *spèr* 'next to, near', *ṣur* 'over', *tras* 'through', and *tar/tiar* 'at, by' usually fuse with the definite article.


3.2 Determiners and pronouns


### **3.2.1.2 Indefinite article**

The indefinite article singular is identical to the numeral *in* (m)/ *ina* (f) 'one'. The feminine form *ina* is realised *in'* before a word starting with a vowel. There is no plural indefinite article; plural indefinite noun phrases are bare.

The indefinite article is used to introduce into discourse entities which are not known to the hearer or reader (29).


Like the definite article, the indefinite article is used for demonyms (30).

(30) *In* one.m *da* of *Méjdal* pn *è* be.prs.3sg *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *cul* with.def.m.sg *trèn* train *gjù* down *Cuéra.* pn 'A person from Medel went down to Cuera by train.' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 52)

### **3.2.1.3 Definite dative article**

Until approximately 1960s, the dative article *di* or *li* was in common use.<sup>4</sup> Nowadays it is obsolescent; spontaneous productions are rare in the corpus and were exclusively produced by older people.

The dative article is a definite article; it distinguishes number but not gender. Its forms are *di* (sg) and *dis* (pl) or *li* and *lis* (31–37). Whereas *li, lis* were

<sup>3</sup>Tuatschín speakers usually write *in' jèda* in one word: *ignèda*.

<sup>4</sup> Some indications concerning the dative article in all Romansh varieties can be found in Linder (1987), and Maurer (2017) looks at the definite dative article in Tuatschin from a diachronic perspective.

### 3 Noun phrase

widespread in other Sursilvan dialects as well as in further Romansh varieties such as Sutsilvan and Surmiran, *di, dis* was only used in Tuatschin.

*Di* and *li* were also used for marking dative case with personal pronouns, however without differentiating gender and number (see §3.6.1).


<sup>5</sup>Until more or less 150 years ago, Swiss Jews were only allowed to settle in two villages in the canton of Aargau. Until recently some of them worked as cattle dealers in the whole country.

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

(37) *Quaj* dem.unm *da* of *l'* def.f.sg *arvèglja* pea.coll *végn* pass.prs.3sg *dau* give.ptcp.unm *dis* def.dat.pl *tgauras.* goat.f.pl 'The straw of the peas is given to the goats.' (DRG 1: 366)

The dative article was also used after the prepositions *ancúntar* 'towards' (38) and *sjantar* 'after' (39).

(38) *Cò* here *ṣaj* be.prs.3sg *vagnú* come.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *fèmna* woman *ancùntar* towards *li* def.dat.sg *quaj* dem.m.sg *pur* farmer *[…].* 'At this moment a woman came towards this farmer […].' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 64)

(39) *[…] tga* comp *nagín* no.m.sg *fravi* smith *ségl* on.def.m.sg *antir* whole *mùn* world *sapi* can.prs.sbjv.3sg *fá sjantar li èl.*

do.inf after dat.sg 3sg.m

'[…] that no smith in the whole world would be able to make [things] like him.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 146)

If the noun precludes the use of the definite article, the marker *da* was used. This is the case if, for instance, the noun is modified by an indefinite article (40) (which is zero-marked if the noun is plural (41)), a quantifier (42), or a possessive determiner (43).


### 3 Noun phrase


The following examples of the definite dative article have been uttered spontaneously by my consultants. There are only examples with *di/dis* (44–46).


'And somehow the result of this was that the heads of district have the authority to tell the municipalities what they have to do [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(46) *Ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *juṣ* go.ptcp.m.sg *in* indef.m.sg *tjamṣ* time *a* and *plaṣchèva* please.impf.3sg *da* dat *mé* 1sg *ṣchùbar* clean.adj.unm *nuét* nothing *api* and *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *di* def.dat.sg *mùma* mother.f *in* indef.m.sg *dé* day *[...].*

'I went [to nursery school] for a certain time and I didn't like it at all and one day I said to my mother [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

Example (47) shows the simultaneous occurrence of di and the Standard Sursilvan construction a + definite article in the same utterance.

'l duvrava par đá (47) dis pòrs, DEM.UNM USE.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M SUBORD give.INF DAT.PL pig.M.PL trúfals ansjaman par dá áls pòrs. potato.M.PL together SUBORD give.INF DAT.DEF.M.PL pig.PL "This he used to give the pigs, potatoes together [with nettles] to give the pigs. (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

It is not clear to me to what extent the definite dative article is productive among those native speakers who still use it. When I asked one consultant what she thinks about a sentence like Ju a dau dis pors, literally 'I have given to the pigs', her answer was:

dis pòrs»? Da lèzas (48) dau uras 1sG have.prs.1sG give.pTCP.UNM DEF.DAT.PL pig.M.PL of DEM.F.PL hour.PL vèva mintga familja in piartg, dus, trais, a every family.F.SG have.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG pig two three and mintgín savèva tgé ca què lès quaj DEM.UNM everybody know.IMPF.3SG what REL DEM.UNM want.COND.3SG dí. Öz stuèssan nus mataj dí: «Ju a say.INF nowadays must.cond.1PL 1PL probably say.INF 1SG have.PRS.1SG dau da magljè dis pòrs» né «Ju a give.PTCP.UNM SUBORD eat.INF DEF.DAT.PL pig.M.PL or 1sG have.PRS.1SG parvasju méjs pòrs». feed.PTCP.UNM POSS.1SG.3PL.M pig.PL

' «I have given to the pigs»? Formerly, every family had a pig, two, three, and everybody knew what it meant. Nowadays we probably might have to say: «I gave to eat to the pigs» or «I fed my pigs».' (Cavòrgja, f1)

It is interesting to note that the consultant uses dá da maglje dis pòrs as a modern way of saying things. In my view, this shows that the marker diddis is still a part of the grammar of some older people.

More examples of dative marking will be given below in §4.2.2 which treats indirect objects.

<sup>6</sup>Standard Sursilvan for dals.

### 3 Noun phrase

### **3.2.2 Demonstratives**

There are four series of demonstratives: the *quèl*-series (Table 3.8), which has deictic as well as anaphoric functions, the *lèz*-series (Table 3.9), which is exclusively anaphoric, the *quèst*-series (Table 3.10), which is only used as a determiner with temporal adjuncts of the verb, and the *tschèl*-series (Table 3.11), which is used in contrast to the *quèl*-series in the sense of 'the other'. The demonstratives are not restricted to any syntactic function.

In the demonstrative paradigms, there is one syncretism: the masculine singular determiner<sup>7</sup> and the pronoun which is unmarked for gender have the same form: *quaj*, *gljèz*, and *tschaj*. <sup>8</sup> This parallels the syncretism in the domain of the adjective: the masculine singular attributive adjective has the same form as the predicative adjective whose antecedent has no gender (see §3.3.1).

### **3.2.2.1 The** *quèl***-series**

The demonstratives of the *quèl*-series are the only ones which have a deictic function. However, they do not provide any information about whether the indicated objects are close further away from speaker or hearer. In order to distinguish proximal (close to speaker and hearer) from distal (further away from speaker and hearer), the adverbs *cò* 'here' and *lò* 'there' are optionally used and are located at the end of the noun phrase.


Table 3.8: Demonstratives: the *quèl*-series

*a* See example (55).

Table 3.8 shows that there is only one difference between determiners and pronouns: the masculine singular form.

Examples (49) and (50) illustrate the deictic function of the determiners of the *quaj*-series.

<sup>7</sup>*Quaj* is also used as a form that may determine place names (see example (55) in this section), but this is not the case for the other three demonstratives.

<sup>8</sup>There is no such syncretism in the *quèst*-series since in this paradigm there are no pronouns.

3.2 Determiners and pronouns


Examples (51 and 52) illustrate the anaphoric function of the determiners of the *quaj*-series.


'[...] we milked and did all this work.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

Examples (53) and (54) illustrate the anaphoric function of the demonstrative pronouns of the *quèl*-series.

(53) *In'* def.f.sg *jèda* time *vèv'* have.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *pur* farmer *in* indef.m.sg *stauschbèna.* wheelbarrow *Quèl* dem.m.sg *vagnéva* come.impf.3sg *navèn* away *la* def.f.sg *nòtg.* night 'Once a farmer had a wheelbarrow. It used to disappear during night.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 66)

<sup>9</sup>The speaker was pointing at the book.

### 3 Noun phrase

(54) *Èl* 3sg.m *vèva* have.impf.3sg *da* to *cargè* carry.inf *ina* indef.f.sg *bùra,* block *mù* but *quèla* dem.f.sg *èra* cop.impf.3sg *gjalada* freeze.ptcp.f.sg *ajla* in.def.f.sg *najv* snow *[…].* 'He had to carry a [block of wood], but it was frozen in the snow […].' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 105)

In §3.3.1 it will be shown that place names are treated as entities without gender since they trigger the use of the unmarked form of the adjective or the participle in predicative function (see examples 170 and 171 below). Therefore, in (55) I interpret *quaj* modifying the place name *Pardatsch* as unmarked for gender but not as masculine singular.

(55) *A* and *grad* precisely *ajnta* in *quaj* dem.unm *Pardatsch* pn *èran* cop.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *quátar,* four *tschun* five *buéts.* boy.m.pl

'And precisely in Pardatsch we were four, five boys.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

The unmarked demonstrative pronoun *quaj* refers anaphorically to a preceding sentence or cataphorically to a noun (56).

(56) *[...] stuèv'* must.impf.1sg *í* go.inf *séls* on.def.m.pl *bauns,* ridge.pl *ah,* eh *sél* on.def.m.sg *Krüzlipass,* pn *Pas* pass *dlas* of.def.f.pl *Cruschs,* cross.pl *cun* with *muossavías,* signpost.f.pl *a* and *vèva* have.impf.1sg *sjat* seven *da* of *quèlas* dem.f.pl *da* to *purtá* carry.inf *sé.* up *A* and *quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *pasanca,* very\_heavy *api* and *vau* have.prs.1sg *tartgau* think.ptcp.unm *basta.* enough

'[...] [I] had to go along the ridges, eh, on the Krüzlipass, *Pass dallas Cruschs*, with signposts, and I had seven of them to carry up. And this was terribly heavy, and then I thought [it was] enough.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

When *quaj* as the subject of the sentence refers cataphorically to nouns, the copula agrees with *quaj* and not with the predicative noun, which may be singular or plural, feminine or masculine (57–60).

(57) *Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *dètgas* real.f.pl *cumars.* chatterbox.pl 'These are real chatterboxes.' (DRG 4: 376)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns


'Look at these two up there, these are two real rascals!' (Berther 2007: 15)

èra (60) […] qu' stau gròndas lavurs [ ... ]. DEM.UNM be.IMPF.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM big.F.PL work.PL '[…] this had been hard work […].' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

In the corpus, there are some occurrences of què as an allomorph of quaj (61).

 cò ajn què (61) [...] quaj rasdau DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG speak.PTCP.UNM here in DEM.M.SG cantún mù ròmòntsch. corner only Romansh.M.SG '[ ... ] in that corner only Romansh was spoken.' (Camischulas, f6, §8.4)

### 3.2.2.2 The lèz-series

In contrast to the demonstratives of the quèl-series, the demonstratives of the lèz-series have exclusively anaphoric functions and cannot combine with the locative adverbs co 'here' and lo 'there'. In the corpus there is only one example with a determiner of the lèz-series, (62).

Table 3.9: Demonstratives: the lez-series


(62) [...] scha nus mòndian a spèr la if 1PL go.PRS.SBJV.1PL and sit.PRS.SBJV.1PL next\_to DEF.F.SG sòr' Andréa, lèza savèva ròmòntsch. Scha nus sister.F.SG PN

3 Noun phrase

> *séjṣian* sit.prs.sbjv.1pl *sén* on *lèza* dem.f.sg *majṣa,* table *ástgian* be\_allowed.prs.sbjv.1pl *nus* 1pl *raṣdá* speak.inf *ramòntsch ̱* Romansh.m.sg *[…].*

'[…] if we went to sit next to Sister Andrea, she knew Romansh. If we sat at that table, we would be allowed to speak Romansh [...].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

There are two reasons why in (62) the noun *lèza* refers to is mentioned. On the one hand, *majṣa* is mentioned at a certain distance, and on the other if *lèza* were used without *majṣa*, the sentence would be ambiguous and *lèza* could be interpreted as referring to *sòr' Andrea*.

In contrast, pronouns of the *lèz*-series are relatively frequent and occur with all syntactic functions. In (63), *lèz* functions as a subject, in (64) as a direct object, in (65) *lèzs* functions as an indirect object, in (66) and (67) *lèz* and *gljèz* occur in prepositional phrases.

(63) *Lu* then *ṣèn* cop.prs.3pl *aj* 3pl *i* go.ptcp.m.3pl *sén* on *claustra* monastery *a* subord *fá* make.inf *vagní* come.inf *gjù* down *gl* def.m.sg *avat.* abbot *Lèz* dem.m.pl *è* cop.prs.3sg *vagnús* come.ptpc.m.sg *gjù* down *[…].*

'Then they went up to the monastery and made the abbot come down. He came down […].' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

(64) *[...] al* def.m.sg *zagnún* dairyman *a* have.prs.3sg *tauntaṣ* so\_many.f.pl *a* and *tauntas,* so\_many.f.pl *a* and *té* 2sg *as* have.prs.2sg *da* comp *gidá* help.inf *lèz.* dem.m.sg

'[...] the dairyman has so and so many [cows], and you have to help him.' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

(65) *A* and *lur'* then *vèv'* have.impf.3sg *inṣ* gnr *da* to *dá* give.inf *… da* to *magljè* eat.inf *da* dat *lèzs* dem.m.pl *[...].* 'And then one had to feed ... feed them [the pigs] [...].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16) 3.2 Determiners and pronouns

ju rantau dal (66) in mél vi ... and then have.1sG 1sG bind.PTCP.UNM one.M.SG mule over of.DEF.M.SG autar, álṣò vi […] dal ... cavèstar da lèz, álsö other well over of.DEF.M.SG bridle of DEM.M.SG that\_is\_to\_say dal ... dal vi bast da lèz scù ins over of.DEF.M.SG of.DEF.M.SG packsaddle of DEM.M.SG as GNR di […]. say.PRS.3SG '[ ... ] and then I bound one mule to the other, well, to [ ... ] the bridle of this one, that is to say to the the packsaddle of that one as one says [ ... ].'

(Sadrún, m10, §8.7)

nuéta salamantá (67) Șèp Flurín duvrajs parvia da 2SG.POL PN PN PN 2 need.PRS.2SG.POL NEG REFL.complain.INF because of gljèz […]. DEM.UNM

'You, Sep Flurin, need not complain about that [ ... ].' (Gadola 1935: 91)

The pronoun gljèz does not refer to entities that have gender; in (68) and (69) it refers to object clauses.

(68) Ins vèz' aun tg'ara dau vidajn GNR See.PRS.3SG still COMP PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM into sch' i pùntgas né trádals; gljèz chisel.F.PL or power\_drill.M.PL whether 3PL blow\_up.1MPF.3PL DEM.UNM sau bétg. know.prs.1sg.1sg neg 'One still can see that chisels or power drills had been used; whether they

would blow up I don't know.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(69) «Da tgéj as lu samjau?» «Gljèz vi ju of what have.PRS.2sG then dream.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM want.PRS.1sG 1sG schòn dí da té.» certainly tell.INF DAT 2SG

'«What did you dream of then?» «That I will tell you, of course.»' (Berther 1998: 85)

In some rare cases, gljèz is used cataphorically (70).

### 3 Noun phrase

(70) *Quaj* dem.unm *èra* exist.impf.3sg *cèrts* certain.m.pl *sèrvituts.* constraint.pl *Gljèz* dem.unm *sa* know.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *maj* never *tg'* comp *i* expl *ò* have.prs.3sg *dau* give.ptcp.unm *històrias* story.f.pl *parví* because *da* of *quaj.* dem.unm 'There were certain constraints. I don't know at all whether there were problems because of that.' (Camischùlas, DRG 3: 379)

As mentioned before, the *quèl*-series may refer deictically and anaphorically to the referent, whereas the *lèz*-series may only refer to it anaphorically. None of my consultants could explain the difference between the two in the domain of anaphora; it, seems, however, there are at least two domains where *lèz* is preferred over *quèl*: with topicalised subjects which are located outside the sentence ((71); see also (63) above), and with the preposition *cun* 'with' (73). But the *quèl*series is nevertheless not excluded from these domains, as (72) and (74) show.


'I met Gieri, and then I went to the alpine pasture with him.' (Sadrún, m4)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

(74) *Ju* 1sg *stòpi* must.prs.sbjv.1sg *ir'* go.inf *a* subord *fá* make.inf *gjù* down *cun* with *quèls* dem.m.pl *sé* up *la* def.f.sg *tégja* alpine\_hut *dal,* of.def.m.sg *da* of *Majgals* pn *[...].* 'I should go and make an appointment with those up there in the alpine hut of the, of Maighels [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

### **3.2.2.3 The** *quèst***-series**

The *quest*-series is only used when modifying a temporal noun which includes the time of speech; it only functions as a determiner (75 and 76).

Table 3.10: Demonstratives: the *quest*-series



Temporal nouns may also be modified by the *quèl*- and the *tschèl*-series, but then they exclude the time of speech: *quèsta stad* 'this summer' vs *quèla stad* 'that summer', or *quèst' jamna* 'this week' (75) vs *tschèl' jamna* 'that week' (77).

(77) *Api* and\_then *vau* have.prs.1sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *èlṣ* 3pl.m *vagjan* have.prs.sbjv.3pl *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *tura* tour *tschèl'* dem.f.sg *jamna* week *[...].* 'And then I said [that] they had done a tour that week [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

In the case of 'this year', it is usually rendered either by *uòn*, rarely by *quèst òn*, but *quaj òn* is used to refer to a year that does not include the speech time (78).

### 3 Noun phrase

(78) *[...] quaj* dem.m.sg *òn* year *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *da* to *fá* make.inf *sé* up *… ina* indef.f.sg *… fòrmazjun* lineup *nòva* new.f.sg *[...].* '[...] that year we had to do ... a .. new lineup [...].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13).

### **3.2.2.4 The** *tschèl***-series**

The *tschèl*-series is usually used explicitly or implicitly in contrast to the *quèl*series or to the numeral *in/ina* 'one' and is best translated by 'the other' or 'that' (79–82).10,11

Table 3.11: Demonstratives: the *tschèl*-series


(79) *Ina* one.f.sg *fò* do.prs.3sg *ajn* in *cuṣchina* kitchen.f.sg *a* and *tschèla* dem.f.sg *fò* make.prs.3sg *sé* up *als* def.m.pl *létgs.* bed.pl

'One works in the kitchen and the other makes beds.' (DRG 4: 598)

<sup>10</sup>One of the anonymous reviewers suggested that the demonstratives of the *tschèl*-series could be medial demonstratives, i.e. demonstratives that refer to objects that are located close to the hearer. This hypothesis implies (1) that the Tuatschin demonstratives are tied to the speech act participants, and (2) that Tuatschin possesses three series of demonstratives that relate the indicated object to the position of the speech act participants, like Spanish *este* (proximal, close to the speaker) vs *ese* (medial,close to the hearer) and *aquel* (distal, further away from both). However, as stated above, Tuatschin makes no such distinction, since there is only one series that has a deictic functions (the *quèl*-series), and if a spatial deictic distinction is made, the adverbs *cò* 'here' (near to speaker and hearer) and *lò* 'there' (further away from speaker and hearer) must be used. Example (81) was uttered while I was sitting with my consultant in a restaurant in front of the city hall of Sedrun. In this example, *quèla* refers to an object located close to speaker and hearer, where as *tschèla* refers to an object located at the same distance, but further away, from speaker and hearer, but by no means close to the hearer.

<sup>11</sup>To use *autar* 'other' instead of *tschèl* in such constructions is felt to be more Standard Sursilvan than Tuatschin by the native speakers I have consulted.

3.2 Determiners and pronouns


'On this side of the Drun [a creek which divides two parts of Sedrun] we have the community hall and on the other side the church.' (Sadrún, m5)

(82) *[...] vèv'* have.impf.1sg *è* also *plaṣchaj* pleasure.m.sg *vi* over *da* of *quaj* dem.unm *vi* over *da* of *tschaj* dem.unm *[...].*

### '[...] [I] also had pleasure in this and that [...].' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

The unmarked pronouns *quaj* and *tschaj* also fulfil other functions than purely anaphoric ones. In (83), *quaj* has a temporal function, in (84), *tschaj* has a consecutive function, and in (85) *tschaj* means 'otherwise'.

	- the main road, at that time only one car would pass by during the whole afternoon, nothing else.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

### 3 Noun phrase

*vèv'* have.impf.1sg *òtg* eight *majns* month.m.pl *ála* in.def.f.sg *Val* valley *Milá,* pn *ála* in.def.f.sg *grépa,* rock.coll *ad* and *vèv'* have.impf.1sg *aun* in\_addition *duas* two.f.pl *sòras,* sister.pl *a* and *tschaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.1sg *buép* boy.m.sg *parsul.* alone.m.sg

'And I was, had … a boy, a brother had an accident when I was eight months old, in the Val Milá, in the rocks, and in addition I had two sisters, hence I was the only boy.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

(85) *Ábar* but *tschaj* dem.unm *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *adina* always *stada* cop.ptcp.f.sg *cò* here *tiar* by *purs.* farmer.m.pl 'But otherwise I have always been here working for farmers.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

It is not always clear what function these pronouns have. In (86), *quaj* may have a causal ('therefore') or a purposive ('in order to do this') function.

(86) *Èl* 3sg.m *durméva* sleep.impf.3sg *bjè,* a\_lot *quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *sél* on.def.m.sg *baun-pégna* bench.m.sg-oven.f.sg *[...].* 'He slept a lot and used to go [and sit] on the oven bench [...].' (Sadrún, m4,§8.3)

### **3.2.3 Possessives**

The possessive determiners are presented in Table 3.12; they agree in number and gender with the possessed, not with the possessor, which means that the possessor may be feminine or masculine. The possessive pronouns are presented in Table 3.13.

The possessive paradigm shows one case of syncretism: the third person possessive determiners have the same form whether the possessor is singular or plural. The forms *sju/sia* are used for singular possessed entities (87) and the forms *séjs/sias* are used for plural possessed entities (88). The Standard Sursilvan form *lur* 'their' for third person plural masculine and feminine possessors is not used.

### 3.2 Determiners and pronouns


Table 3.12: Possessive determiners

*a* In the corpus, there is one occurrence of the Standard Sursilvan form /*miw*/ (f3, §8.1.


when dem.m.sg begin.impf.3sg in with poss.3sg.m.pl spirit.pl *a* and *tùt* all *quaj* dem.unm *tg'* rel *èra.* exist.impf.3sg

'[...] when he started with his spirits and everything that was there.' (Sèlva, f2, §8.6)

The feminine singular possessives *mia* and *tia* usually lose their final *-a* when they precede a noun that starts with a vowel, as in *ti' ònda* 'your aunt', or as in (89). In the corpus, there are also some cases of the masculine form *mju* that is pronounced *mi'* before a vowel (90).

(89) *Lu* then *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sadacidjus* refl.decide.ptcp.m.sg *da* comp *… raṣdá* talk.inf *in* indef.m.sg *pau* little *ṣur* over *da* of *la* def.f.sg *... da* of *mi'* poss.1sg.f.sg *ufaunza* childhood *[...].* 'Then I decided to ... talk a bit about ... my childhood [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 3 Noun phrase

(90) *A…* and *mi'* poss.1sg.m.sg *ùm* man *fagèva* do.impf.3sg *gè* in\_fact *survigiládar* supervisor.m.sg *[...].* 'And … in fact, my husband was a supervisor [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

Normally, the possessive determiners precede the noun, but in proverbs or sayings they may follow it (91).

(91) *Cùsch* keep\_quiet.imp.2sg *bùca* mouth.f.sg *tia,* poss.2sg *scha* then *cùschan* keep\_quiet.prs.3pl *bùca* mouth.f.sg *tùtas.* all.f.pl

'Keep quiet, then everybody will keep quiet.' (Büchli 1966: 100)

The possessive pronouns (Table 3.13) take different forms according to whether they occur as the predicate (92) or in another, nominal, function likesubject (93).



Table 3.13: Possessive pronouns

Regarding third person plural predicative, some speakers prefer to use *dad èls* 'of them' (94) instead of *séjs* 'theirs', using *séjs* only for singular ('his/hers').

(94) *Quaj* dem.m.sg *cùdiṣch* book *è* cop.prs.3sg *dad* of *èls.* 3pl.m 'This book is theirs.' (Sadrún, m5)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

### **3.2.4 Indefinites**

The indefinite determiners are *mintga* (+C)/*mintg'* (+V) <sup>12</sup> 'every' (95 and 96), *nagín* (m) / *nagina* (f) 'no' (97 and 98), *scadín/scadina* 'every, any' (99), and *tùt + definite article* / *tùta + bare noun* 'all' (100–102). *Mintga*, *tùt*, and *tùta* are invariable.


<sup>12</sup>Note that /j/ counts as vowel.

### 3 Noun phrase


As mentioned above, tùta is used with bare nouns, is invariable, and is restricted to singular reference (103 and 104).

(103) Ajn tùta cas mia. mia mùma a la in all - case.M.SG POSS.1SG.F.SG POSS.1SG.F.SG mother and DEF.F.SG còlèga tg'èra ﮯ cun mè ... mùma da mju mother of POSS.1SG.M.SG mate REL COP.IMPF.3SG also with 1SG vèvan nus […]. stju gidá have.IMPF.3PL must.PTCP.UNM help.INF 1PL 'Anyhow my, my mother and the mother of my mate who was with me ... had had to help us [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.12)

ins tùta stat, (104) […] api lu mavan lò and then go.IMPF.3SG.EUPH GNR whole summer.F.SG there vèva da fá quaj. have.IMPF.1sg to do.INF DEM.UNM '[…] and then we would go for the whole summer, there [I] had to do that.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

In Büchli (1966: 62) there is an occurrence of *tùts* (105), this is of variable *tùt*, but this is an obsolescent construction. In my oral corpus, there is no example of this construction.

(105) *Ad* and *èla* 3sg.f *ò* have.prs.3sg *piau* pay.ptcp.unm *li* dat *èl* 3sg.m. *tùts* all.m.pl *tiars* animal.pl *[...].* 'And she paid him all the animals [...].' (Camischùlas, Büchli 1966: 14)

The indefinite pronouns are *anzatgé(j) / zatgé(j)* 'something' (106), *x-zatgé(j)* 'something, anything' (107), *finadín (m) / finadina (f)* 'everybody (without exception)' (108), *mintgín* 'everybody' (109), *nagín* / *nagina* / *nagins* / *naginas* 'nobody, no one'(110), *nuét* 'nothing' (111), *tùt* 'everything' (112), *tùtas* (f) / *tùts* (m) 'all' (113), and *zatgí* 'somebody' (114).

(106) *Api* and *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sòra* nun *òra* out *uschéja* so *… avaun* in\_front\_of *niaṣ* poss.1pl.m.sg *ésch* door *ad* and *ò* have.prs.3sg *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *a* and *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *tòca* until *la* 3sg.f *audi* hear.prs.sbjv.3sg *anzatgéj* something *[...].*

'And then the nun was out [on the corridor] like this ... in front of our door, waiting and waiting until she would hear something [...].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

(107) *[...] api* and *ṣaj* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *in'* one.f.sg *ura* hour *da* to *ṣchubargè* clean.inf *né* or *fá* do.inf *ò* out *cul* with.def.m.sg *fiar* iron *né* or *x-zatgéj* anything *luvrá* do.inf *palas* for.def.f.pl *sòras* nun.pl *[...].*

'[...] and then we had to clean for one hour or iron or do something else for the nuns [...].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

(108) *Tùts* all.m.pl *stuèvan* must.impf.3pl *spargnè.* save.inf *Finadín.* everyone *Vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nagíns* no.m.pl *… réhs.* rich.pl

'Everyone had to save. Absolutely everyone. We had no … rich people.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

### 3 Noun phrase


Adatgí as a dative indefinite pronoun is found in (115); note that nowadays this form is obsolete.

(115) Adatgí plaj barba, adatgí DAT.some please.PRS.3SG beard.F.SG DAT.some moustache.M.SG adatgí gjùta, adatgí ris. DAT.some pearl\_barley.F.SG DAT.some rice.M.SG 'Some like beards, some moustaches, some pearl barley, some rice.' (DRG 2: 154)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

The combination of *anzatgé* 'something' with *in / ina* 'indefinite article' does not function as a quantifier, but has a comparative meaning, best translated by 'a kind of', as in (116).

(116) *Tùt* all *als* def.m.pl *pòsts* post.pl *vèvan* have.impf.3pl *anzatgé* something *in* indef.m.sg *crap* stone *ṣutajn.* under\_in 'All [hay rack] posts had a kind of stone under them.' (Camischùlas, DRG 3: 580)

### **3.2.5 Quantifiers**

### **3.2.5.1 Numerals**

Cardinal numerals are found in Table 3.14 and Table 3.15.


Table 3.14: Cardinal numerals (first part)

From one hundred onwards, the hundreds are linked by the conjunction *a / ad* 'and' from one to twenty: *tschian ad òtg* '108', *duatschian a ṣchèniv* '219', *sjattschian a végn* '720', but *nùftschian trèntadús* '932'.

The numerals that follow *mili/méli* 'thousand' and *maljún* 'million' are also linked by *a* 'and': *méli ad òtgtschian òtgòntasjat* '1887' (§8.3) or *dus maljúnṣ a trajatschian a végn* '2.320'.

### 3 Noun phrase

Table 3.15: Cardinal numerals (second part)


(117) *In* one.m *ufaun* child *è* cop.prs.3sg *pauc,* little *duṣ* two.m *è* cop.prs.3sg *drètg,* all\_right *trajṣ* three *è* cop.prs.3sg *strètg,* narrow.adj.unm *quátar* four *è* cop.prs.3sg *fula,* crowd.f.sg *tschun* five *è* cop.prs.3sg *paluna* pile.f.sg *a* and *ṣbaluna.* collapse.prs.3sg

'One child is little, two are all right, three are narrow, four are a crowd, five are a lot that collapses.' (DRG 6: 728)

(118) *[...] quaj* dem.unm *va<sup>13</sup>* go.prs.3sg *sé* up *sén* on *dua* two *mili* thousand *a* and *trajtschian* three\_hundred *a* and *taunts* so\_many.m.pl *mè̱tarṣ* metre.pl *ṣur* above *mar.* sea.f.sg

'[...] this goes up to 2.300 metres or so above sea level.' (Sadrún, f3,§8.1)

The forms *dua* (119) and *traj(a)* (120) of the cardinal numerals 2 and 3 are used with *tschian* 'hundred' and *mili* 'thousand' (see Table 3.15), and also with some collective nouns.


The fractions occurring in the corpus are *quart* 'quart', *miaz* (121), *mjasa* 'half' (122), *antir, -a* 'whole' (123); 'both' is rendered by *(d)òmaṣdús/(d)òmaṣdúas* (124).

<sup>13</sup>*va* is a Standard Sursilvan form; the Tuatschin form is *vò*.

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

	- '[ ... ] and then eh I left with both [mules].' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

Numerals can be modified by strusch 'almost', as in strusch dus mètars lad 'almost two metres broad'.

Ordinal numbers have special forms from 1-4; from 5 onwards they take the suffix -ával / -avla: amprém, -a 'first', zacùn,-da 'second' (125), tiarz, tjarza 'third', quart, -a 'fourth', tschunával, tschunavla 'fifth', déjschávla 'tenth', véntgaduṣával, véntgaduṣavla 'twenty-second', and so on. 'Last' is rendered by davùs, davùsa.

(125) cun flugjals la zacûnda jèda give.INF with flail.M.PL DEF.F.SG second time 'beat with flails for the second time' (DRG 6: 421)

### 3.2.5.2 Other quantifiers

Quantifying determiners are ampau 'a bit' (126), aungatáun 'as much as, once as much'(127), anqual / inqual 'some' (128 and 129), bjè 'many', massa / mass' 'many, lots' (130 and 131), and zatgé(j) / zitgé(j) 'some' (literally 'something') (132 and 133). All these determiners are invariable except bjè, which is invariable or which agrees in gender and number with the noun it modifies.

### 3 Noun phrase


6: 546)

Instead of aungatáun, it is also possible to say aun in jèda taun 'still one time as much'.


'[ ... ] there were a lot of young people here in the valley.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

3.2 Determiners and pronouns

(132) *Ad* and *i* expl *aun* still *èra* exist.impf.3sg *lò,* there *zatgé* some *rastònza* remnant.f.sg *ṣè* exist.prs.3sg.expl *aun* still *lò* there *[...].* 'And there were also, there still are some remnants there [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(133) *Lèdṣ* dem.m.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *lu* then *dau* give.ptcp.unm *zatgéj* some *étg* ointment.m.sg *dad* attr *úndṣchar* oil.inf *ajn* in *[...].* 'He had given [him] some ointment to rub in [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

The determiner *bjè* is either invariable (134 and 135) or takes the plural forms *bjèras* (f) (136) or *bjèrs* (m).

(134) *Lu* then *mávani* go.impf.3pl.3pl *bjè* much *gjùn* down\_in *Cavòrgja,* pn *cò* here *da* from *quaj* dem.m.sg *gròn* big *uaul* forest *vagnéva* come.impf.3sg *bjè* much *lèna.* wood.coll

'Then they often went down to Cavorgia, much wood came from that big forest there.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(135) *Quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *ina* indef.f.sg *munièssa* nun *da* from *Gljòn,* pn *la* def.f.sg *sòra* Sister *Paulina,* pn *quèla* dem.f.sg *ò* have.prs.3sg *dau* give.ptcp.unm *bjè* many *òns* year.m.pl *scùlèta* nursery\_school.f.sg *cò.* here

'That was a nun from Glion, Sister Paulina, she taught for many years at the nursery school here.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(136) *Bjèras* many.f.pl *fèmnas* woman.pl *òn* have.prs.3pl *zambargjau.* do\_crafting.ptcp.unm 'Many women did crafting.' (Sadrún, m5)

In comparative (137) and superlative (138) constructions, *bjè* is treated like an adjective (see §3.3.2).

### 3 Noun phrase

(137) banadiczjún, lèza vèva plé bjè DEF.F.SG blessing DEM.F.SG have.IMPF.3SG much more fòrza sélas stréjas. power.F.SG on.DEF.F.PL witch.PL '[ ... ] the blessing had much more power over the witches.' (Sadrún, m6, ઠ્ઠક.5)

duvrava plé bjè lèna (138) DEM.UNM need.IMPF.3SG DEF.F.SG more much firewood.cOLL stèva buglí. quaj DEM.UNM must.IMPF.3SG boil.INF '[…] that required the highest quantity of firewood … this [= the whey] had to boil.' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

As a pronoun, bjè takes the form bjèrs (M) (139) and bjèras (F) (140).

(139) […] ábar dals, méjs gjaniturs ... vajn nus ùssa but DEF.DAT.M.PL POSS.1SG.M.PL parent.PL have.PRS.1PL 1PL now bégja détg Vus, éra bjèrs tga... NEG say.PTCP.UNM 2PL.POL but EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG many.M.PL REL òn détg tòcan, gè práctisch adina Vus have.3PL say.PTCP.UNM until yes practically always 2PL.POL dals gjaniturs. DEF.DAT.M.PL parent.PL

'[ ... ] but to the, my parents we now never said Vus, but there were many who have said until, well practically always Vus to their parents.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(140) [ ... ] bjèras many.F.PL let.IMPF.3PL then also NEG come.INF in

'[ ... ] many [young women] wouldn't let [the young man] come in [ ... ].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.1)

Non-countable quantifying nouns such as in téc 'a bit' (141), in tschùpal 'a lot' (142) as well as countable quantifying nouns such as ina butèglja 'a bottle' (143) or duas butegljas 'two bottles' are used without a partitive preposition.

3.2 Determiners and pronouns


'And so I would, I could recount a lot of incidents that happened with these mules.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(143) Quèl tga gartagjava butèglja DEM.M.SG REL succeed.IMPF.3SG get.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG bottle vin. wine.M.SG "The person who succeeded would get a bottle of wine." (Zarcúns, m2, ઠુંક.13)

Further examples of countable quantifying nouns occurring in the corpus are in glas aua 'a glass of water', in matg flurs 'a bunch of flowers', in pèr jamnas 'a couple of weeks', mju quantum vacas 'my amount of cows', in gròn tòc prau 'a big piece of meadow' (Büchli (1966: 121).

Furthermore, bje is used adverbially (144) meaning 'often'; it can also be nominalised and corresponds to 'much, many' (145) or 'mostly' (146).

(144) quèl al plé gròn plașchaj ... and have.PTCP.UNM DEM.M.SG DEF.M.SG more big.M.SG.UNM pleasure da ... surprèndar a da májstar, a of take\_over.INF job.F.PL of bricklayer.M.SG and of joiner.M.SG and mava plé bjè sén gljèz. go.IMPF.1sG more often on DEM.UNM

'And had the greatest pleasure ... to take over bricklayers's or joiners's jobs, and I did more often that [kind of work.]' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

3 Noun phrase


### **3.2.5.3 The construction** *tùt tga* **and similar**

The construction with an indefinite noun or noun phrase and similar followed by the relative pronoun *tga* is common to all Romansh varieties except for Puter, and has been described by Linder (1987: 185–204).

In the oral corpus, only four examples have been found (147–150).


### 3.2 Determiners and pronouns

What is special about this construction is that the *tga*-phrase looks like a relative clause, but in fact this is not the case. In (147), *magari* 'sometimes' is not the antecedent of a relative clause, but is a time adverb that belongs to the main clause.

It has not yet been possible to determine the exact function of this construction, but in any case it introduces new information and emphasizes the situation referred to (see Linder 1987: 195–198). However, it is not a general topic construction since it is limited to a few words, especially to indefinites in subject function (Table 3.16).

Table 3.16: Indefinites and others + *tga*


For example, it is not possible to say

(151) *Al* def.m.sg *Gjòn* pn *\*tg'* rel *ò* have.prs.3sg *angulau* steal.ptcp.unm *als* def.m.pl *raps.* cent.pl 'It is Gion who stole the money.' (Sadrún, m5)

But one can find a construction involving the expletive pronoun *i* and the copula which has the same functions and the same restrictions, and of which the *tùt tga* construction could be an ellipsis (see also Linder 1987: 201).

(152) *I* expl *è* cop.prs.3sg *gnang* not\_even *in* one.m.sg *tg'* rel *è* be.prs.3sg *vagnús* come.ptcp.m.sg *tiar* to *nus.* 1sg 'Not a single person came to see us.' (Sadrún, m5)

### 3 Noun phrase

The following examples of the construction with *tga* are either elicited or taken from written sources (153–156). The elicited forms were accepted by all the native speakers that have been consulted.


everybody wants to stay up there.' (Berther 2007: 69)

(156) *Ùṣ* now *è* cop.prs.3sg *tùt* all *tga* rel *vò* go.prs.3sg *cun* with *brajntas* basket.f.pl *da* of *stùrs.* sheet\_metal.m.sg 'Now everybody goes with a basket made of sheet metal.' (DRG 2: 491)

If *tùt* has a plural reference, the agreement is syntactic, which means that verbs, adjectives, and participles occur in their singular form, the latter two in their unmarked form as in (157).

(157) *Quasi* almost *tùt* all *tg'* rel *è* be.prs.3sg *vagnú* come.ptcp.unm *a* to *fjasta.* party.f.sg 'Almost everyone came to the party.' (Sadrún, m5)

<sup>14</sup>Performance error for *luajn*.

3.3 The adjective

### **3.3 The adjective**

### **3.3.1 Forms of the adjective**

The adjective distinguishes two genders and two numbers: masculine, feminine, singular, and plural. Singular is unmarked except for masculine predicative adjectives, but plural takes the suffix *-s*.

Except for three adjectives which will be treated below, adjectives display four forms, whereby a single form may fulfil different functions:


The distribution of the adjectives according to whether they occur in predicative or in attributive function is slightly different in the domain of masculine adjectives (Table 3.17).


Table 3.17: Forms of the attributive and predicative adjectives

Adjectives ending in *-n* have their feminine form in *-ta*: *samagljòn/samagljònta* 'similar', and *stupèn/stupènta* 'excellent'. This holds for quantifiers as well: *taun/ taunta* 'so many' and *zacònts/zacòntas* 'some'.

The three invariable adjectives referred to above are *andrètg* 'right, righteous', *aparti* 'special', and *bianmartgau* 'cheap'.<sup>15</sup> Whereas *andrètg* and *bianmartgau* are used without restriction (*ina dùna andrètg* 'a righteous woman' and *ina tgèsa bianmartgau* 'a cheap house'), *aparti* modifying a feminine noun is mostly used

<sup>15</sup>See Spescha (1989: 276) for Standard Sursilvan.

### 3 Noun phrase

in attributive position modified by the adverb *tùt* 'very': *ina vusch tùt aparti* 'a very particular voice'.

Adjectives may show stem alternations (Table 3.19) or not (Table 3.18). Stem alternations may concern vowels or consonants; a list of adjectives with stem alternations is given in Table 3.20. 16


Table 3.18: Adjectives without stem alternations

Table 3.19: Adjectives with stem alternations


<sup>16</sup>Some adjectives with stem alternations which are listed in Spescha (1989: 282f.) are not used in Tuatschin. These are *detschiert*, *detscharta* 'resolute', *tanien*, *tanienta* 'such'; for *stiert*, *storta* and *uiersch*, *uiarscha*, both 'crooked', the adjective *crùtsch, -a* is used; however, *ina stòrta* 'a bend' exists. As for *ierfan*, *orfna* 'orphan', only the masculine form *iarfan* is used as a noun for both genders. Furtherore, *tiest*, *tosta* 'dried' is only used in *majla tòsta* 'dried apples' or *pèra tòsta* 'dried pears'.

### 3.3 The adjective


Table 3.20: List of adjectives with stem alternations

The adjectives ending in -*al* lose their reduced vowel in the feminine form, as in *pussajval* (m) vs *pussajvla* (f) 'possible', or *ṣgarṣchajval* (m) vs *ṣgarṣchajvla* (f) 'terrible'.

The predicative forms of the adjective do not only occur with copulative verbs, but also if the adjective refers to a physical or mental state of the noun it refers to, as in examples (158–163).


### 3 Noun phrase


'[…] otherwise I get completely chopped into such fine pieces […].' (Surajn, Büchli 1966: 129)

In infinitive clauses with a copulative verb (164), the adjective takes the masculine singular predicative *-s* in spite of the fact that it has a generic, not a masculine referent.

(164) *Èssar* cop.inf *mazauns* ill.m.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *bigja* neg *bi.* nice.adj.unm 'Being ill is not nice.' (Sadrún, m4)

The generic pronoun *ins* triggers the use of the masculine singular form of the adjective in predicative position (165).

(165) *[...] èr'* cop.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *trésts* sad.m.sg *ajn* in *in* indef.m.sg *cèrt* certain *sèn* sense *[...].* '[...] one felt sad in a certain sense [...].' (Ruèras, f4,§8.16)

3.3 The adjective

The morphologically unmarked form occurs in predicative function if the subject it refers to has no gender, like e.g the demonstrative *quaj* 'this', place names, generic noun phrases, or nonfinite subject clauses, as in (166–170). The same holds for the predicative past participle, as in (171).


The unmarked form is also used with pronouns that have no gender like *zatgéj* 'something' in (172).

(172) *A* and *galòpau,* gallop.ptcp.unm *galòpau,* gallop.ptcp.unm *galòpau,* gallop.ptcp.unm *zatgéj* something *sgarṣchajval,* terrible.adj.unm *nuṣ* 1pl *èssan* be.prs.1pl *vagní* come.ptcp.m.pl *da* comp *tanaj* hold.inf *èls* 3pl.m 3 Noun phrase

> *pér* only *gjù* down *ṣur* above *Sèlva.* pn

'And [the mules] galloped, galloped, galloped, this was horrible, we only managed to hold onto them above Selva.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

### **3.3.2 Degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs**

In this section, the degrees of comparison (Table 3.21) of adverbs will be included for convenience.

The positive is built with *usché* 'so' and *scù* 'as, like'. The comparative is constructed with *plé* 'more' and *tga* 'that'. Only the comparative of superiority is used; the comparative of inferiority could be constructed, but is not in use. The superlative is built like the comparative, but with the definite article in addition.

Table 3.21: Degrees of comparison


*<sup>a</sup>*Rarely *tgé.*

In the corpus, most comparatives are left without a compared element (173); an example with the compared element is (174).

(173) *[...] tgé* what *c'* rel *ins* gnr *vèza* see.prs.3sg *bjè* much *è* cop.prs.3sg *als* def.m.pl *plé* more *passaj,* old.m.pl *als* def.m.sg *pènṣionaj* retired.pl *vèz'* see.prs.3sg *ins* gnr *bjè* much *sén* on *pista* slope.f.sg *[...].*

'[...] what one often sees are older people, one can see a lot of retired people on the slopes [...].' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

(174) *[...] ò* have.prs.3sg *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *scùlas* school.f.pl *vinavaun* further *… stada* cop.ptcp.f.sg *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *plé* more *pardèrta* clever.f.sg *tgé* than *quaj* dem.unm *tgu* rel.1sg *èra.* cop.impf.1sg '[...] [she] kept going to school … was a little bit cleverer than I was.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

3.3 The adjective

Although adjectives may precede or follow the noun they modify, with the superlative the prenominal syntax is preferred with short adjectives (175–177), even with the adjectives that always follow the noun as is the case of colour adjectives (176).


There are some synthetic comparatives and superlatives: *bian* 'good', *mégljar* 'better' (178), and *al mégljar* 'the best', as well as *schliat* 'bad', *mèndar* 'worse', and *al mèndar* 'the worst'.

(178) *A* and *suéntar* after *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *staus* cop.ptcp.unm *mégljars* better.m.sg *[...].* 'And after [that] he behaved better [towards the animals] [...].' (Tschamùt, Büchli 1966: 20)

Linder (1987: 233–250) shows that for some adjectives or substantivised adjectives, see (180), the superlative is formed without *plé* 'more' in all Romansh written varieties. This also holds for Tuatschin (179–182).

(179) *Lu* then *ṣaj* cop.prs.3sg *vagnú* come.ptcp.unm *gjù* down *la* def.f.sg *lavina* avalanche *[…] ad* and *ò* have.prs.3sg *méz* put.ptcp.unm *ṣùt* under *la* def.f.sg *grònda* big *part* part *dl* of.def.m.sg *vitg.* village 'Then the avalanche came down […] and buried the biggest part of the village.' (Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 120)

### 3 Noun phrase


'[…] the youngest [goat] in the clock box, this one he didn't find.' (Gartner 1910: 61)

(182) *[...] mia* poss.1sg.f.sg *féglja* daughter *pintg'* young *è* cop.prs.3sg *plétost* rather *[...] pintga.* small.f.sg '[...] my youngest daughter is rather [...] short.' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)

A possible way of forming the elative is using the prefix *u-*, which is a loan from colloquial Swiss German (183 and 184).


Another way of forming the elative is using a noun that is mostly derived from an adjective, with different suffixes: *bials / biala* 'beautiful' → *balèzja* 'beauty' (185), *buns / buna* 'good' → *buantád* 'good quality' (186), *pasar* 'weigh' → *pasanca* 'heavy load' (187 and 188), *paupers / paupra* 'poor' → *pupira* 'poverty' (189), *tups / tupa* 'stupid' → *tupira* 'stupidity' (190), or *scarts / scarta* 'scarce' → *scartèzja* 'scarcity' (191). These elatives are used attributively and predicatively.

3.3 The adjective

(185) *[...] i* expl *èra* cop.impf.3sg *fétg* very *tgaud* warm.adj.unm *a* and *la* def.f.sg *mar* sea *èra* cop.impf.3sg *balèzja* beauty.f.sg.elat *gjù* down *Sardégna.* pn '[...] it was very warm and the sea was beautiful in Sardinia.' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)


'And this was terribly heavy, and then I thought [it was] enough.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(188) *Quèla* dem.f.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *còrna* horn.coll *usché* so *davùsòra,* back\_out *pasanca* heavy\_load.f.sg.elat *tiar* animal.m.sg *[...].* 'This one had horns that had grown backwards, a very heavy animal

[...].' (Ruèras, m4, §8.16)

(189) *Ábar* but *i* expl *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… pupira,* poverty.f.sg.elat *quèls* dem.m.pl *spargnavan* save.impf.3pl *è* also *starmantús* terrible.adj.unm *[...].* 'But this was ... real poverty, they would save as much as they could [...].'

(Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

(190) *Quaj* dem.unm *fùs* cop.cond.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *tupira* stupidity.f.sg.elat *par* for *mè* 1sg *da* comp *stuaj* must.inf *raṣdá* speak.inf *ajn* in *tgòmbra* room.f.sg *cun* with *tschèlas* dem.f.pl *ròmòntschas* Romansh.pl *… tudèstg.* German.m.sg

'It would have been very stupid for me if I'd had to speak ... German in the room with the other Romansh room-mates.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

3 Noun phrase

(191) èra scartèzja. DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG scarcity.F.SG.ELAT '[The cervelats] were very scarce.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

### 3.3.3 Intensifiers of the adjective

The intensifiers of the adjective occurring in the corpus are aparti 'very', dètg 'fairly' (192), fétg'very' (193), mèmi/mèmja'too' (194–196), pulit'very' (197), réjsch 'brand-' (198), schi 'such' (199), in téc 'a bit' (200), tùt 'completely' (201), and ualti 'quite' (202). These intensifiers are all invariable.


(195) A pér cu quaj èra fatg scha èra and only when DEM.UNM PASS.IMPF.3SG do.PTCP.UNM CORR COP.IMPF.3SG la scòtga mèmi tgauda […]. DEF.F.SG whey too hot 'And only when this was done, the whey was too hot [ ... ].' (Ruèras, m3, 88.16)

3.3 The adjective

(196) *[...] a* and *qu'* dem.unm *èra* be.impf.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *par* for *èla* 3sg.f *mèmja* too *hèfti.* violent.unm '[...] and this had been too violent for her.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)


'And he takes a brand-new knife with a yellow handle out of the backpack ... exactly the same.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

In the corpus, *réjsch* only modifies *néjv* 'new' (198), but Decurtins (2012: 931) cites further *resch tgietschen* 'flame red' and *resch bletsch* 'soaking wet' for Standard Sursilvan.


bit dominant.adj.unm

'And precisely at that moment a big swan… was coming to the place where I was, a bit of a dominant one.' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

### 3 Noun phrase


'This was a very hard time for my them.' (Sadrún, f1)

### 3.3.4 Infinitival clauses modifying an adjective

Infinitival clauses modfying adjectives are introduced by da/dad (203-207).


when they would dismantle [something].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

3.3 The adjective

(206) Ad èr' è bi zatgé da mirá cù and COP.IMPF.3SG also something beautiful.ADJ.UNM MOD look.INF how luvravan […]. quèls tiars DEM.M.PL animal.PL work.IMPF.3PL 'And it was also something nice to look at, how these animals worked [...].' (Ruèras, m.10, §8.7)

(207) è dad í COP.IMPF.3PL also then NEG SO and cùn cùn cròtscha né cùn tgar. with with plough.F.SG or with cart.M.SG 'And ... [...] it was not so ... so nice to walk [with] them with a plough or a cart.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

The modified element may also be a participle used as an adjective (208).

(208) Ùssa ... pòrs ..., tgi ca so lèzs quaj, now pig.M.PL who REL know.PRS.3SG DEM.UNM DEM.M.PL èn ualti stinaj da, da catschá èls COP.PRS.3PL quite obstinate.PTCP.M.PL MOD MOD drove.INF 3PL.M 'Now ... pigs ..., those who know that, they are quite obstinate when one droves them [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

### 3.3.5 Adjectives in adverbial function

Manner adverbs derived from adjectives by the suffix -majn (see §4.3.3) are not as widespread as in other Romance varieties, probably due to Swiss German influence. Therefore, many adjectives in their unmarked form are used as manner adverbs (209-211).


### 3 Noun phrase

(211) *[...] álṣò* this\_is\_to\_say *òr* out *dal* of.def.m.sg *grép* rock *òni* have.prs.3pl.3pl *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *pintga* small *… sènda* path *tg'* rel *ins* gnr *sò* can.prs.3sg *ira* go.inf *ah* eh *a* on *paj* foot.m.sg *flòt.* easy.adj.unm '[...] this is to say out of the rock they made a small … path through which one could easily go eh on foot.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

A special case is *bian* 'good', which is sometimes mistaken for *bégn* 'well', as in (212).

(212) *In* def.m.sg *vjantar* stomach *gròn* big *maglja* eat.prs.3sg *bian.* good.adj.unm 'A big belly eats well.' (DRG 2: 624)

### **3.3.6 Position of the attributive adjective**

The position of the adjective in Standard Sursilvan has been analysed in Winzap (1981). According to this author, the position of the adjective depends mostly on syntactic, stylistic, rhythmic, and semantic criteria (Winzap 1981: 1). He proposes, among others, the following rules, which are more tendencies than strict rules (Winzap 1981: 3ff.):


3.3 The adjective


Note that (1) - (6) are syntactic, whereas (7) - (9) are semantic criteria. No examples have been found for rules (2), (3), and (6).

It is very improbable that Tuatschin differs from Standard Sursilvan in this respect, and since the ten criteria mentioned by Winzap are best considered tendencies, I will illustrate each of these without further analysing this issue since it would be beyond the scope of this grammar.

Examples (213) and (214) illustrate rule (1), since the adjective, which is the head of an adjective phrase, follows the noun.


'But they would give us too much homework [...].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

Example (214) furthermore shows that this rule also applies to monosyllabic adjectives like *gròn* 'big' that usually precede the noun.

Examples (215) and (216) illustrate rule (4) (monosyllabic adjectives precede the noun). It must, however, be emphasized that the feminine counterparts of masculine monosyllabic adjectives are polysyllabic and that the rule applies to them as well (217).

(215) *Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *ualti* quite *tgèr,* expensive.adj.unm *ábar* but *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *car* dear.m.sg.unm *ufaun.* child 'This is quite expensive, but this is a dear child.' (Sadrún, m5)

### 3 Noun phrase


'[...] this had been hard work [...].' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

Rule (5) (polysyllabic adjectives follow the noun) is illustrated by (218).

(218) *Èla* 3sg.f *è* be.prs.3sg *curdada* fall.ptcp.f.sg *gjùdajn* down\_into *ajn* in *ina* indef.f.sg *rùsna* hole *nùndétga.* awful 'She fell in an awful hole.' (Sadrún, f1)

Rule (7) (the adjective precedes the noun if it has a descriptive function) is shown in (219).

(219) *[...] lu* then *ṣè* exist.prs.3sg *aun* still *dus* two *trajs* three *intarassants* interesting *lògans* place.m.pl *ajn* in *cò* here *[...].*

'[...] there are furthermore two or three interesting places up there [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(219) also shows that rule (7) overrides rule (5) according to which polysyllabic adjectives tend to follow the noun.

Example (220) illustrates rule (8) (post-nominal position because it has a distinctive function). As a matter of fact, the big animals are opposed to the goats, pigs, and hens which are small animals.

(220) *[...] tgéj* what *pudévan* can.impf.3pl *èls* 3pl.m *vaj,* have.inf *déjsch* ten *quindiṣch* fifteen *armaulṣ* animal.m.pl *gronṣ* big.pl *api* and *lu* then *aun* besides *... tgauras* goat.f.pl *sòu* know.prs.1sg.1sg *tga* comp

3.3 The adjective

*vèvan* have.impf.3pl *a* and *… pòrṣ* pig.m.pl *a* and *gaglinaṣ* hen.f.pl *[...].*

'[...] what could they have, maybe ten, fifteen big animals and then also goats I know they had, and … pigs and hens [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

This contrast is also found in *pástar gròn* 'main shepherd (literally 'big shepherd')', vs *pástar pin* 'second shepherd (literally 'small shepherd')', *gròn* and *pin* being adjectives that normally precede the noun.

Rule (9) (different meaning according to the position of the adjective) can be illustrated by *néjv* / *nùva* 'new' (221 and 222).


In (221) *néjv autò* refers to a car that replaces an old one and which could be a second-hand car, whereas in (222) *autò néjf* refers to a brand-new car. This rule applies also to (223) as opposed to (224) or (225).


(225) *[...] quaj* dem.m.sg *òn* year *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *da* to *fá* make.inf *sé* up *… ina* def.f.sg *… fòrmazjun* lineup *nòva* new.f.sg *ad* and *ad* and *instrumajnts* instrument.m.pl *nùfs.* new.pl '[...] that year we had to do ... a ... new lineup and and [buy] new instruments.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

3 Noun phrase

Some adjectives always follow the noun, as adjectives referring to colours or to demonyms: tgautschas najras 'black trousers' (§8.15) or ina sòra tudèstga 'a Swiss-German nun' (§8.4).

### 3.3.7 Absence of agreement

If the predicative adjective or past participle is left-dislocated in order to topicalise it (226), or if the adjective or the participle forms a semantic unit with the verb as in e.g. schá líbar 'let free' or vay mal 'have pain' (227–233), it does not agree with the noun it modifies and the unmarked form of the adjective is used.


3.3 The adjective

mèlna tschò ò (231) unflau in téc POSS.F.1SG yellow.F here have.PRS.3SG swell.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG bit ina tgòmba davùs. INDEF.F.SG leg back 'My yellow [cow] has a back leg that is a bit swollen.' (Berther 2007: 31)

(232) vèva mal ina quinau DEF.M.SG brother-in-law have.IMPF.3SG bad.ADJ.UNM INDEF.F.SG tgòmba. leg 'My brother-in-law had leg pain.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(233) Nus stgavan ir líbar tùt als pors. 1PL be\_allowed.IMPF.1PL go.INF free.ADJ.UNM all DEF.M.PL pig.PL 'We were allowed to let all the pigs go around freely.' (Cavòrgja, f1)

However, if an adjective is left-dislocated for focusing, it agrees with its noun (234).

 taur è bjals, ábar gròns (234) DEM.M.SG bull COP.PRS.3SG beautiful.M.SG but big.M.SG COP.PRS.3SG ์ไ bétg. 3SG.M NEG 'This bull is beautiful, but big he is not.' (Ruèras, m10)

### 3.3.8 Conjoining of adjectives

Adjectives are conjoined by the conjunction a 'and' (235).

(235) I I èr' in dé frajd a blètsch. EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG day cold and wet 'It was a cold and wet day' (Tschamùt, Büchli 1966: 18)

In (236) the adjective pin 'short' is followed by grias 'fat' without a conjunction.

èr' (236) […] quaj in súpar musicant ... in DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG Super musician INDEF.M.SG ùm pin grias usché […]. man short fat so '[ ... ] he was a super musician ... a short and fat man [ ...].' (Ruèras, m4, ర్థిక. 16)

### 3 Noun phrase

This is due to the fact that (236) is not a case of two conjoined adjectives, but here *grias* modifies *ùm pin*.

## **3.4 Noun phrases and prepositional phrases modifying a noun**

Modifying nouns (237) or noun phrases as well as prepositional phrases (238– 241) follow the modified noun. Prepositions may also introduce infinitive clauses which modify a nouns (242–244).


3.5 Infinitive clauses modifying a noun

### **3.5 Infinitive clauses modifying a noun**

Modifying infinitive clauses follow the noun and are introduced by *da/dad* (242 –244) in the rare cases found in the corpus.


### **3.6 Personal pronouns**

Table 3.22 shows the paradigm of the personal pronouns with the most widespread forms.


Table 3.22: Personal pronouns

*<sup>a</sup>*The generic pronoun will be treated in §3.7

### 3 Noun phrase

Subject and object pronouns are only differentiated in the first person singular; however, in the domain of passive voice, there is a certain variation between dative and accusative. In a passive construction the agent is introduced by *da*, and some speakers prefer using the pronoun *mé* (dative) (245), whereas others use *mè* (accusative) (246).


This variation is triggered by the fact that *da* is ambiguous: on the one hand it corresponds to the dative marker, hence *mé*, and on the other it functions as a preposition, hence *mè*.

In the second person singular there is no difference between direct and indirect object. As a consultant puts it (247):

(247) *Nuṣ* 1pl *ṣchajn* say.prs.1pl *adina* always *té.* 2sg *Tè* tea.m.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *da* subord *bajbar.* drink.inf 'We always say *té* ('you'). *Tè* ('tea') is for drinking.' (Surajn, f5)

The subject pronoun *èl* 'he' is sometimes realised as *al* (248) (cf. also §8.5).

(248) *Fòrza* maybe *prènd'* take.prs.3sg *al* 3sg.m *anzatgéj* something *[...].* 'Maybe he would take something [...].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

The subject pronouns *èla* 'she' and *èlas* 'they (f)' are sometimes reduced to *la* (249) or *las* (250) when there is subject inversion.

(249) *Cu* when *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *vagnús,* come.ptcp.m.sg *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* 3sg.f *schòn* already *lò.* there 'When I arrived, she was already there.' (Sadrún, f3)

3.6 Personal pronouns

(250) *Tùtajnina* suddenly *ò* have.prs.3sg *las* 3pl.f *udju* hear.ptcp.unm *òd* out\_of *gl* def.m.sg *uaut* forest *ṣùt* under *Cavòrgja* pn *ina* indef.f.sg *vusch* voice *[...].* 'Suddenly they heard a voice [coming] out of the forest underneath Cavorgia [...].' (Camischùlas, Büchli 1966: 82)

The polite pronoun is *Vus*, which triggers the second person plural form in the verb. There is, however, one exception: past participles. Whereas for masculine singular (and plural) referents, the plural form is used (251), for feminine singular referents, it is the singular form that is used (252); the plural only refers to plural referents (253).


In the first part of the 20th century, a polite pronoun *Èls* was used (254), which corresponds to the third person plural masculine form. According to some consultants, this form was exclusively used with priests, and according to some others also with teachers and doctors. The verb agrees in number with *Èls*.

(254) *La* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *raquénta* tell.prs.3sg *tg'* comp *i* 3pl *ṣchèvan,* say.impf.3pl *dal* dat.def.m.sg *aucsé̱gnar* priest *a* and *dal* dat.def.m.sg *scòlast* teacher *ṣchèvani* say.impf.3pl.3pl *aun* still *Èls.* 2sg.m.pol *A* and *da* dat *tschèls* dem.m.pl *vagnévi* pass.impf.3sg.expl *détg* say.ptcp.unm *Vus.* 2sg.m.pol

'My mother says that to the priest and to the teacher, they would say *Èls*. And to the others they would say *Vus*.' (Camischùlas, f6)

### 3 Noun phrase

The pronoun *èl* 'he' refers in very rare cases to entities that have no gender. The only example in the corpus is (255), a function that is normally fulfilled by *quaj*, the demonstrative pronoun which is unmarked for gender.

(255) *[...] vajs* have.prs.2sg.pol *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *èl?* 3sg.m '[...] did you do it?' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

In this context, *èl* refers to the fact that the narrator's grandfather should take care of his wound.

The subject personal pronouns may be modified by the locative adverb *cò* 'here' (256).

(256) *A* and *lu,* then *nus* 1pl *cò* here *sursilvanas,* Sursilvan.f.pl *matévan* put.impf.1pl *adina* always *da* during *pausa,* break.f.sg *mavanṣ* go.impf.1pl.1pl *ajn* in *ṣala* hall.f.sg *da* comp *magljè* eat.inf *[...].*

'And then we, the Sursilvan students, would always place [it] during the break, we would go into the dining hall [...].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

With subject inversion some contracted forms are optionally used: *craj ju* 'believe I' → *crau* (257), *sa ju* 'know I / can I' → *sau / sòu* (258), *va ju* 'have I' → *vau / vòu* (259), *savajn nus* 'know we / can we' → *savajns / savajnṣ* (260); *ò ins* 'has one' → *òns / ònṣ* (261).

(257) *Gljèz* dem.unm *crau* believe.1sg.1sg *bé* neg *da* of *té.* 2sg 'This, I don't believe you could do.' (Sadrún, m8)

(258) *[...] tgé* what *pudévan* can.impf.3pl *èlṣ* 3pl.m *vaj,* have.inf *déjsch* ten *quindiṣch* fifteen *armaulṣ* animal.m.pl *gronṣ* big.pl *api* and *lu* then *aun* besides *tgauras* goat.f.pl *sòu* know.prs.1sg.1sg *tga* comp *vèvan* have.impf.3pl *a* and *… pòrṣ* pig.m.pl *a* and *gaglinaṣ* hen.f.pl *[...].* '[...] what could they have, maybe ten, fifteen big animals and then also

goats I know they had, and … pigs and hens [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(259) *Api* and *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg *détg:* say.ptcp.unm *«Ah* oh *súpar!»* great 'And then I said: «Oh, great!»' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

3.6 Personal pronouns

(260) *A* and *quaj* dem.unm *stèvnṣ* must.impf.1pl.1pl *èssar* cop.inf *… pulits-pulits* red~well\_behaved.m.pl *l'* def.f.sg *jamna* week *… tg'* comp *al* def.m.sg *bap* father *dètschi* give.prs.sbjv.3sg *in* one.m.sg *frang* franc *a* and *miaz.* half.m.sg 'And we had to be … very well-behaved during the week … so that my father would give [us] one and a half francs.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

(261) *[...] da* of *quèla* dem.f.sg *òns* have.prs.3sg.gnr *naturálmajn* natural.m.sg.adv *… quasi* almost *stavju* must.ptcp.unm *… vagní* come.inf *cun* with *ina* indef.f.sg *détga.* legend '[...] of this slab, one of course had … to ... come up with a legend.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.4)

Besides the pronouns presented in Table 3.22, there are two further personal pronouns: *i* and *aj*, which do not distinguish gender and which are synonyms of *èls* or *èlas*. These two pronouns also function as expletive pronouns (see §3.6.2). Two cases must be distinguished:


In (262) and (263), *i* refers to masculine referents (animals and employees of the municipality), and in (264), it refers to feminine referents (nuns).

(262) *[…] nòs* poss.1pl.m.pl *tiars.* animal.pl *I* 3pl.sbj *mavan* go.impf.3pl *adina* always *gjù* down *ancù̱ntar* towards *las* def.f.pl *plauncas* slope.pl *da* of *l'* def.f.sg *Òndadusa* pn *[…].*

'[…] our animals. They would always go down towards the slopes of the Ondadusa.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 67)

### 3 Noun phrase


'And the municipal employees were just renovating the swimming pool and then they said: [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(268) *Anqual* some *jèda* time.f.sg *vagnéva* come.impf.3sg *lu* then *al* def.m.sg *pás[tar]* herdsman *… né* or *usché* so *cu* when *aj* 3pl *vasévan* see.impf.3pl *a* and *gidavan* help.impf.3pl *tòca* until *tg'* comp *ins* gnr *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *ajn* in *… ajn* in *«ṣchwunc»<sup>17</sup>* movement.m.sg *[...].*

'Sometimes the herdsman would come ... or so, when they saw and they would help until one was in ... in movement again [...].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

<sup>17</sup>*Schwung* is German for Romansh *slontsch*.

3.6 Personal pronouns

(269) Las nòtízjas sa ju bétg danùndar als gjaniturs, DEF.F.PL news.PL know.PRS.1SG 1SG NEG from\_where DEF.M.PL parents.PL dus baps prandèvan aj […]. als DEF.M.PL two.M. father.PL take.IMPF.3PL 3PL 'I don't know where my parents had the news from [ ... ].' (Ruèras, m1, ઠુક.2)

(270) bigja fatg a j agrèssíf well 1sg have.prs.1sg NEG make.pTCM.UNM 3.UNM aggressive.ADJ.UNM […].

'Well, I didn't do it in an aggressive way [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

### 3.6.1 Dative pronouns

Nowadays, the dative marker for all persons is da/dad, but until approximately 1960, da/dad was used for first and second persons (271-273) and di or li for third persons (274-276). Note that in contrast to the corresponding definite dative article (see §3.2.1.2), the pronoun does not differentiate number.


### 3 Noun phrase


In contrast to full noun phrases, the forms *di* and *li* with pronouns occur neither in the *Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun* nor in my own corpus.

With third persons there are some examples of the Standard Sursilvan dative marker *a/ad* in Büchli (1966) (277), and in Gartner (1910), only *a/ad* occurs (278 and 279).


3.6 Personal pronouns

(279) *ad* and *ɛl* 3sg.m *ɔ* have.prs.3sg *partiw* distribute.ptcp.unm *ad* dat *ɛlts* 3pl.m *la* def.f.sg *rawba* fortune 'And he distributed his fortune among them.' (Gartner 1910: 86)

The only occurrence of the form *ada* of the dative article occurs in the DRG (280); however, there it is only given in parenthesis as an alternative to *da*.

(280) *Dá* give.imp.2sg *ina* def.f.sg *castrada* act\_of\_joining *(a)da* dat *quèla* dem.f.sg *rùsna.* hole 'Tie together this hole with a cord.' (DRG 3: 462)

As mentioned above, today only *da/dad* is used in all cases. Examples (281 and 282) illustrate the use of *da/dad* with third persons.


Other definite pronouns like the demonstratives were treated like personal pronouns. In (283), *tschèl* 'the other' is pluralized but *li* is not.

(283) *[…] lu* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *détg* say.ptcp.unm *li* dat *tschèls:* dem.m.pl *[…].* '[…] then he said to the others: […].' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 104)

### **3.6.2 Expletive pronoun**

The expletive pronoun is usually *i*, in preverbal position (284–287) as well as in the case of subject inversion (288). It is used in existential constructions (284), with the verb *vagní* as an auxiliary in impersonal passive constructions (285) or as an inchoative copula (286). It is also used in active impersonal constructions (288).

(284) *[...] tùt* all *quèls* dem.m.pl *… lògans* place.pl *nù* where *i* expl *èran* exist.impf.3pl *muossavías.* signpost.f.pl

### 3 Noun phrase


'[The soot in] the pot is burning, it is getting stormy.' (DRG 2: 215)

(288) *[...] sén* on *quaj* dem.m.sg *pas* pass *duèssi* should.cond.3sg.expl *èssar* cop.inf *ina* indef.f.sg *samagljònta* similar *caplùta* chapel *[...].*

'[...] on this pass there should be a similar chapel [...].' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

With subject inversion, the expletive pronoun is sometimes realised as *aj* (289). In combination with the third person singular present of the verb *èssar* 'be' the combination is realised as *ṣaj* (290), *ṣè* (291), or less frequently, *ásaj* (292).


3.6 Personal pronouns

(291) Ah ... Nalps è fraquantau ò vagnú scù be.prs.3sg pass.aux.pTCP.unm visit.pTCP.unm out as ah PN majsès ad alps adina, lu șe aun dus assembly\_of\_houses and alp.M.PL always then EXIST.PRS.3SG still two.M trajs intarassants lògans ajn cò [...]. three interesting place.M.PL in here 'Ah ... Nalps has always been visited as an assembly of houses and as pastures, there were furthermore two or three interesting places up there [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(292) Ad òz ásaj bitga trajs, gè, tga vòn a and today EXIST.PRS.3SG.EXPL NEG three yes REL go.PRS.3PL to scùla. school.F.SG 'And today there aren't [even] three that attend school.' (Zarcúns, m2, 88.13)

### 3.6.3 Intensive personal pronouns

The personal pronouns may be modified by the intensive pronouns mèz 'myself', etc. The paradigm is as follows: mèz, -a, tèz, -a, sèz, -a, nus sèzs, -as, vus sèzs, -as, sèzs, -as; however, there is a general tendency in Sursilvan varieties to use sèz for all persons, a development which parallels the case of reflexive sa- which is used for all persons in all tenses and moods (see §4.1 and §5.5.1). In the corpus, there are only examples for mèz 'myself' and sèz 'herself, himself'. These may be used attributively (293) or predicatively 294).

(293) Ju mèza vaj santju quaj. 1sg self.1sg.f have.prs.1sg feel.pTCP.UNM DEM.UNM 'I felt this myself.' (Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 126)

In (294) the narrator uses first sèza instead of tèza 'yourself' and then mèza for 'myself'.

(294) Api vau tartgau: « Jo nu, halt and have.PRS.1sG.1sG think.PTCP.UNM yes now then do.PRS.2SG simply sèza.» ad ábar turnau da quindisch pétgas ajn da quaj self.F.SG and but turn.PTCP.UNM in of DEM.UNM of fifteen 3 Noun phrase

mèza.

self.1sG.F

'And then I thought: «In this case, you simply do it yourself.» and I put in something like fifteen posts myself.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

Examples (295 and 296) show the use of sèzs with first and third person plural. There are no examples of first person plural in the corpus.

(295) sèzs pòrs 1PL must.IMPF.1PL self.M.PL drive.INF DEF.M.PL pig.PL out of nuégl […]. barn.M.sG '[ ... ] we had ... to drive the pigs out of the barn ourselves [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

(296) […] a lèzs ồn sèzs stavju lura ... métar and DEM.M.PL have.PRS.3PL self.M.PL must.PTCP.UNM then > put.INF sén pajs quaj […]. on foot.m.pl dem.unm '[...] an§8.1)

### 3.7 Relative clauses

In spontaneous speech mostly two relativisers occur: tga for most cases, nùca, nùca tga, or nù tga, which introduce locative clauses, and very rarely cura 'when' for temporal relative clauses. Tga is reduced to tg' before a word that starts with a vowel, and when followed by ju 'I', the combination is realised as tgu 'that I' in most cases.18

The following examples illustrate the function of tga introducing subjects (297), direct objects (298), and temporal adjuncts (299).

(297) Quèl ... survagnév'ina butèglja DEM.M.SG REL succeed.IMPF.3SG get.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG bottle vin. wine.M.SG 'The person who succeeded would get a bottle of wine.' (m2, §8.13)

<sup>18</sup>This form is also used as a contracted form of cu 'when' with ju 'I', see §6.2

3.7 Relative clauses


Prepositional phrases are not relativised with a preposition; instead, only the relativiser tga is used and no trace of the prepositional phrase occurs in the relative clause. In (300), it is the preposition cun 'with', in (301) da 'of', in (302) par 'because of, why', in (303) 'for', and in (304) atrás 'through' that are intended.

(300) nwet elz djants de clotted.milk REL GNR damage.PRS.3SG NEG DEF.M.PL tooth.PL COMP roj. gnaw.INF

'[…] clotted milk with which you do not damage your teeth when you gnaw at it.' (Ruèras, Valär 2013b: 8f.)


'[ ... ] maybe this has been a bit the reason why I began to go for stones.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 3 Noun phrase


'And then they made, out of the rock face, this is to say out of the rock they made a small ... path through which one could easily go eh on foot.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

If the antecedent is tgi who' or tgé what', the relativiser is realised as ca (305-307).

(305) [...] tgi ca vagnéva traplaus stuèva al who REL PASS.IMPF.3SG catch.PTCP.M.SG must.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG […]. vèndardis sèra ... stá lò Friday evening.F.SG stay.INF there '[…] the person who got caught had to … remain there on Friday evening [ ... ].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

(306) Tgi c' è da stròm daj who REL COP.PRS.3SG of straw must.PRS.3SG sapartgirá dal fiuc. REFL.be\_on\_one's\_guard.INF of.DEF.M.SG fire 'A person who is made of straw should be on their guard against fire.' (DRG 6: 449)

3.7 Relative clauses

(307) *[...] la* def.f.sg *sèra* evening *vajn* have.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *halt* just *vulju* want.ptcp.unm *savaj* know.inf *tgé* what *ca* rel *cùri* run.prs.sbjv.3sg *aparti* special *cò* here *[...].* '[...] in the evening we wanted to know whether there was something special going on [...].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.3)

The relative clause does not have to be adjacent to its antecedent, as example (308) shows.

(308) *[...] ábar* but *stòpi* must.prs.sbjv.1sg *prèndar* take.inf *malitèr* military.m.sg *cun* with *mè,* 1sg *tga* rel *vajan* have.prs.sbjv.3sg *… fùnc* radio.m.sg *a* and *sápian* can.prs.sbjv.3pl *[...] dí* say.inf *cu* when *nus* 1pl *vajan* have.prs.sbjv.1pl *da* comp *… ir* go.inf *davùṣ* behind *in* indef.m.sg *cuélm.* mountain '[...] but I needed to take with me some soldiers that had radio and would say [...] when we should … go behind a mountain [to protect ourselves].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

In rare cases the relativiser *tga* is realised *tgé* (309) or *tgi* (310 and 311). Note, however, that *tgi* as a relativiser is rejected by most of my consultants.

(309) *[...] in* indef.m.sg *pástar* herdsman *gròn,* big *quèl* dem.m.sg *vasèva* see.impf.3sg *adina* always *la* def.f.sg *damaun* morning *da* of *bjalaura* nice\_weather.f.sg *ina* indef.f.sg *nibla* cloud *najra* black *tgé* rel *satschantava* refl.sit.impf.3sg *séla* on.def.f.sg *Sjara* pn *da Curnèra [...].*

'[...] a main herdsman, in the morning in nice weather, he always saw a black cloud that laid on the Siara da Curnera [...].' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 62)

(310) *L'* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *ina* indef.f.sg *véglja* old *davùs* behind *pégna* oven.f.sg *tgi* rel *tgaja* shit.prs.3sg *danès.* money.m.pl

'He has an old woman behind the oven who shits money.' (DRG 5: 57)

3 Noun phrase

(311) *[...] plé* more *baut* early *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *aj* expl *al* def.m.sg *fagljét* son.m.sg.dim *tgi* rel *fijèv'* do.impf.3sg *al* def.m.sg *pur.* farmer '[...] in earlier days it was the youngest son who worked as a farmer.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

Locative relative clauses are formed with *nù* (312), *nù tga* (313), *nùca* (314 and 315), *nùca tga* (316 and 317), or only with the relativiser *tga* (318). *Nùca* already contains the complementiser *ca* – see Standard Survilvan *nua che* 'where that', also realised as *nu che* – but in Tuatschín, *ca* forms an unanalysable unit with *nù*.


'Below was the alpine hut where he would also make cheese [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

3.7 Relative clauses

(315) *[…] la* def.f.sg *damaun* morning *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* def.m.sg *crapa* stone.coll *gjù* down *nùca* rel *la* def.f.sg *basèlgja* church *stat* stay.prs.3sg *òz* today *sén* on *quaj* dem.m.sg *prau.* field '[…] in the morning the stones where down there on the field where the church is located nowadays.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 134)

(316) *[…] sé* on *l'* def.f.sg *alp* alp *nùca* rel *tg'* rel *èl* 3sg.m *èra* be.impf.3sg *staus* cop.ptcp.3sg.m *da* as *buéb* boy.m.sg *[…].* '[…] on the alp where he had been as a boy [...].' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966:

145) (317) *Al sulèt intarèssant è l' ampréma*

def.m.sg only interesting.adj.unm cop.prs.3sg def.f.sg first *sacùnda* second *classa* form *nùca* rel *tga* rel *fòn* make.prs.3pl *la* def.f.sg *midada* change *tial* towards.def.m.sg *sursilván* Sursilvan *[…].*

'The only interesting thing is the first [and] second form where they start switching to Standard Sursilvan.' (Sadrún, m5)

(318) *[...] a* and *lu* then *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *cò* here *pròpi* really *in* indef.m.sg *cantún* corner *tga* rel *vagnéva* pass.impf.3sg *mù* only *raṣdau* speak.ptcp.unm *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.adj.unm '[...] and then we had here a real Romansh corner where only Romansh

was spoken.' (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

Some authors write *nùca* as two words (319).

(319) *[...] a* and *lu* then *èni* cop.prs.3pl.3pl *sacussagljai* refl.consult.ptcp.m.pl *sén* on *vaschnaunca* municipality.f.sg *da* subord *bagagè* build.inf *èla* 3sg.f *gjù* down *lò,* there *nù'* rel *c'* rel *èla* 3sg.f *stat* stay.prs.3sg *oz.* today '[...] and then they discussed [the problem] in the municipality [and

### 3 Noun phrase

decided] to build it [the church] where it is located nowadays.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 134)

Tga is also used for locative relative clauses if the locative antecedent is not nùca or nù, as (320) and (321) show.

(320) [...] zatgé rastònza șè aun lò tg'ins sa something remnant.F.SG COP.PRS.3SG still there REL GNR can.PRS.3SG í ajn a mirá […]. go.INF into comp see.INF

'[ ... ] there still are some remnants there where one can go and see [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(321) võu fòrza schòn è survagnú in out there have.PRS.1SG.1sG maybe really also get.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG d' téc quajda par crapa tgu a bit desire.F.SG COMP go.INF for stone.COLL REL.1SG have.PRS.1SG vju difarènts lògans tg' i vèvan see.PTCP.UNM different.M.PL place.PL REL 3PL have.IMPF.3PL gjù a ad èra sitau ... vagnú તે blast.PTCP.UNM down and be.IMPF.3SG come.PTCP.UNM out cristalas ètcètara [ ... ]. crystal.F.PL and\_so\_on

'Out there I might have started enjoying looking for stones a bit, when I saw different places where they had blasted [the rocks], and crystals and so forth ... had come out [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

In rare cases, nùca tga or ca tga function as the relativiser of a temporal relative clause (322 and 323). This is also the case with tga alone (see the first occurrence of tga in (321).

(322) Álșò i dèva òns nùca tga gudignavan ... nùndétg, well EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL REL earn.IMPF.3PL incredibly ad i nùca tg'èra sèra òns aua, ad and EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL REL EXIST.IMPF.3SG water and èra òns nùca tga spardévan. EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL REL IOSe.IMPF.3PL

'Well, there were years when they earned ... a lot of money, and there were years with rain, and precisely years when they would lose money.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.9)

3.8 Generic noun phrases

(323) gl òn ca tg' òn déponju gju and DEF.M.SG year REL REL have.PRS.3sG have.PTCP.UNM store.PTCP.UNM ah figuras ins adina détg «la quèlas DEM.F.PL eh figure.PL have.PRS.3SG GNR always say.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG stiva dals gjadjus» […]. living\_room of.DEF.M.PL Jew.PL 'And [since] the year they stored these eh figures one has always said

«the living room of the Jews».' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

(324) illustrates the use of cura in order to head a temporal relative clause.

l' (324) Daváuntiar șaj sé la. anada cur'i in front COP.PRS.3SG.EXPL up DEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG year when 3PL antschiat ồn […]. have.PRS.3PL begin.PTCP.UNM 'In front of it there is, eh, the year when they started [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4, 88.3)

In the corpus there is only one case of a manner relative clause. Its antecedent is quèluisa 'such a way' and it is introduced by tga ca (325).

(325) Qu' è ca lu ju quèluísa tga nus DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG then go.PTCP.UNM DEM\_Way SUBORD SUBORD 1PL èssan vagní vidòra, ò da Pardatsch, be.IMPF.1PL come.PTCP.M.PL over out return.PTCP.M.PL out of PN tg' èssan ajn lò fòrsa ... quátar tschun nus staj CORR be.COND.1PL 1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL in there maybe four five jamnas. week.F.PL

'This happened in such a way that when we returned down [to Surrein] from Pardatsch, then we had stayed there maybe ... four or five weeks.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 3.8 Generic noun phrases

Generic subject noun phrases are formed with the definite article singular (326) or plural (327 and 328) as well as with the indefinite article singular or plural (329 and 330). Generic object noun phrases are usually bare (331).

### 3 Noun phrase


'Small children consume power and delay the work.'<sup>19</sup> (DRG 6: 432)

(331) *Èla* 3sg.f *ò* have.prs.3sg *mù* only *ugèn* with\_pleasure *salata.* salad.f.sg 'She only likes salad.' (Sadrún, m5)

The generic pronoun *ins* – rarely *in*, see (336) – is not restricted to subjects, but can be found in different syntactic functions (332–335).

(332) *Ad* and *i* expl *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *è* also *bitga* neg *úṣit* usage.m.sg *tg'* comp *ins* gnr *mava* go.impf.3sg *a* to *scùlèta.* nursery\_school.f.sg 'And it was not usual that one attended nursery school.' (subject) (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

<sup>19</sup>In this sentence, *magljè* 'eat' and *flur* 'flower' are used in a metaphoric way.

3.8 Generic noun phrases


In (336), ins could have a generic reading, but could also be interpreted as a first person plural.

and consideration (336) Prquaj tga quaj inș ... vèva bigja grad da because comp DEM.UNM when GNR sch' èr' ins antiar dé cun partgirá tiars mind.INF animal.M.PL CORR COP.IMPF.3SG GNR Whole.M.SG day with quèls [ ... ]. DEM.M.PL

'Because when we ... didn't just have to mind the animals, we were with them [the Italian workers] the whole day […].' (Sadrún, m4,§8.3)

If ins is in subject position, the adjective must occur in its masculine singular form if it occurs predicatively (337). The reason therefore may lie in the fact that ins is derived from the Latin masculine singular nominative บพบร 'one'.

### 3 Noun phrase

(337) ju a tgèsa ábar quaj èra go.IMPF.1sG 1sG to home.F.sG but DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3sG èr' ins trésts ajn in cèrt sèn COP.IMPF.3SG GNR sad.M.SG in INDEF.M.SG certain sense 'I would go home, but this was ... one felt sad in a certain sense [ ... ].' (Ruèras, f4, §8.3)

### 3.9 Structure of the noun phrase

Determiners precede adjectives and nouns. The modifying noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses follow the noun. Adjectives precede or follow the noun; intensifiers precede the adjective. If combinations of determiners occur, the demonstrative precedes the possessive which in turn precedes the numeral: quèls nos ufauns 'these our children' - but these combinations are rare. The only combination of determiners occurring in the corpus is a possessive with a numeral (338).

l' (338) Nuș èssan amprém'jèd'uòn, sgulaj cun 1PL be.PRS.1PL fly.PTCP.M.PL DEF.F.SG first - time this\_year with nòssas duas ... buébas. POSS.1PL.F.PL two.F girl.PL 'We flew for the first time this year, with our two ... daughters.' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)

# **4 Verb phrase**

### **4.1 The verb**

Tuatschin possesses impersonal, intransitive (2), mono-, and ditransitive verbs. Impersonal verbs require an expletive pronoun in subject position (1). Monotransitive verbs usually have a direct object (3 and 4), but in rare cases they may have an indirect object (5) 1 . Ditransitive verbs (6 and 7) have a direct and an indirect object, the latter being marked by *da/dad*. 2 . An exception is the verb *dumandá*, which has two direct objects (8) (see §4.2.2). Note that if the two objects are pronominal, the object of asking is usually not mentioned (8). The indirect object usually precedes the direct object (7).


(3) *In* one.m.sg *da* of *Méjdal* pn *vèv'* have.impf.3sg [*in'* indef.f.sg *ura* clock *da* of *Schwarzwald* pn *tg'* rel *èra* cop.impf.3sg *rùta*]*.* break.ptcp.f.sg

'An inhabitant of Medel had a clock from the Black Forest that was broken.' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 106)

<sup>1</sup>*udí da* is a calque from German. *udí* 'hear' is *hören* in German, and belong is *gehören*, which triggers dative case.

<sup>2</sup>As shown in §3.2.1.2 and §3.6.1, the dative articles *li* (see (7) as well as *di* are obsolescent, and the dative marker *a*, which is used in rare cases, is a loan from Standard Sursilvan.

### 4 Verb phrase

(4) *In* indef.m.sg *dé* day *[…] partgirava* mind.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *buép* boy [*laṣ* def.f.pl *vacas*] cow.pl *sén* up *Vòns.* pn

'One day [...] a boy was taking care of the cows at Vons.' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 103)


for the favour [he had done her].' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 145)

(8) *[...] ina* indef.f.sg *zagríndara* Yenish *[…] ò* have.prs.3sg *dumandau* ask.ptcp.unm [*la* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *da* of *tgèsa*] house.f [*in* one *tgavégl* hair *da* of *sia* poss.3sg.f.sg *buéba*]*.* girl '[…] a Yenish woman [...] asked the mother of the house for one hair from her daughter.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 131)

### **4.1.1 Verbal morphology**

According to the ending of their infinitives, verbs can be divided into five classes:


4.1 The verb

• *-aj* (*tanaj* 'hold')

The verbs ending in -*aj* like *savaj* 'know', *vulaj* 'want', or *tanaj* 'hold' are all irregular and well be presented in §4.1.1.4.

From a diachronic point of view, the *-è*-class is a subclass of the *-a*-class due to the general rule that *a* becomes *è* after a palatal consonant or glide.

The small number of regular verbs ending in *-í* all have the stem extension *-èsch* (Table 4.9). Some verbs of other conjugation classes also have this stem extension; in the oral corpus, this only concerns two verbs that end in *-á* and one that ends in *-è*: *datá* 'date' (*ju/èla datèscha* 'I/she dates'), *discusjuná* 'discuss' (*ju/èla discusjunèscha* 'I/she discusses'), and *aprazjè* 'appreciate' (*ju/èla aprazjèscha* 'I/she appreciates').

Tuatschin has three non-finite categories: infinitive, past participle, and gerund, whereby the gerund is not in use in current speech.

Within the finite categories, the language differentiates tense, aspect, and modal categories as well as simple, compound, and doubly-compound categories.

The simple categories are present indicative, present subjunctive, imperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, direct conditional, indirect conditional,<sup>3</sup> and imperative.

The compound tenses are perfect indicative, perfect subjunctive, pluperfect indicative, pluperfect subjunctive, and future. The compound tenses are formed with an auxiliary verb (either *èssar* 'be', *vaj* 'have', or *vagní* 'come') and the past participle or the infinitive.

The doubly-compound tenses correspond to the perfect and the pluperfect, but with two past participles instead of one.

The personal ending for the first person singular present and imperfect indicative is *-a*, as in *ju cònta* 'I sing' and *ju cantava* 'I used to sing', but some irregular verbs lack this ending, as in *ju détsch* 'I say', *ju dùn* 'I give', *ju fétsch* 'I do', *ju végn* 'I come', or *ju vòn / ju mòn* 'I go'. For further examples see §4.1.1.4.

Reflexive verbs are built with the prefix *sa-* in all persons, tenses, moods, and non-finite categories and use the auxiliary verb *èssar* 'be' for compound tenses: *salavá* (infinitive) 'wash (oneself)', *ju salava* (present) 'I wash', *té salavassas* (direct conditional) 'you (sg) would wash', *nus èssan salavaj* (perfect) 'we have washed', *vus vagnís a salavá* (future) 'you (pl) will wash', *èlṣ èran salavaj* (pluperfect) 'they had washed'.

<sup>3</sup>*Direct* and *indirect conditional* are terms used in Sursilvan Romansh grammars to refer to a conditional which is used in direct in indirect speech, respectively (§4.1.2.2.10).

### 4 Verb phrase

According to the DRG (1: 568), the choice of *esser* as auxiliary verb for reflexives in Standard Sursilvan is due to the prescriptive demand of Sursilvan grammarians since the 18th century. Nowadays speakers seek to conform to this rule, but in spoken Sursilvan, one still can find *haver* as auxiliary for reflexive verbs.

The reflexive verbs will not be treated this chapter, but their use will be presented in §5.5.1 on reflexive voice.

Verb forms that end in *-n* in the first and third person singular present indicative take a euphonic *-d* before /j/ (9 and 10) or a vowel (11).


### **4.1.1.1 Auxiliary verbs**

The auxiliary verbs *èssar* 'be' (Table 4.1) and *vaj* 'have' (Table 4.2) are used for compound tenses (and *vaj* also for doubly-compound tenses), whereas *vagní* 'come' (Table 4.3) is used for future. In the following tables, only one compound tense will be listed, the perfect; as for the doubly-compound tenses, they are formed with the perfect or the imperfect of the auxiliary verb *vaj*, the participle of *vaj*, and the participle of the main verb and need not be listed. Examples will be given in §4.1.2.2.6.

In the third person singular and plural present and imperfect, the verb *èssar* 'be' has a special form when there is subject inversion (which includes polar interrogatives): *ásaj*, *ṣaj ṣè*, and *ṣèn*, as well as *ṣèra* and *ṣèran* (12–14). These forms go back to Standard Sursilvan, where *igl ei* 'expl + cop.prs.3sg' is realised as *eiṣ ei* 'is it' with subject inversion (/ajzaj/ > /azaj/ > /zaj/ < /zɛ/). In contrast to Standard Sursilvan, the form of the copula does not include an expletive pronoun in (12– 14).

4.1 The verb


Table 4.1: Auxiliary verb *èssar* 'be'


Children and very occasionally also older people generalise this form and use it without subject inversion (15–17).

4 Verb phrase


In (18) the form of the copula *ṣè* does include an expletive pronoun as in the Standard Sursilvan form noted above.

(18) *Basta,* enough *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *id'* go.ptcp.f.sg *ál* to.def.m.sg *trèn,* train *tòcan* until *gjù* down *Sògn* pn *Gagl ṣè* cop.prs.3sg.expl *bigja* neg *da* comp *fá* make.inf *bjè* much *falju* wrong.adj.unm *[...].*

'Enough. I went to the train, to St. Gallen there is not much you could do wrong [...].' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)

### **4.1.1.2 Regular verbs**

Future tense is always built with the auxiliary verb *vagní* 'come', but it is not used in normal daily speech, where almost exclusively present tense is used for future reference. Therefore future tense will not be listed in the table of the regular verbs (as well as of the irregular verbs). The same holds for the gerund, which was used by traditional story tellers until some decades ago, but which is not in use any more (for examples see §4.1.2.1.2).

As mentioned above, the *è–*conjugation has split from the original *á*–conjugation (< Latin -are) because of the presence of a preceding palatal consonant. Table 4.4 lists some examples of *è*–verbs with their Standard Sursilvan counterparts. Note that the final *–r* of the infinitives in Standard Sursilvan orthography is not pronounced in any Sursilvan variety.

4.1 The verb


Table 4.2: Auxiliary verb *vaj* 'have'

### 4.1.1.2.1 Suffixes of the regular finite verb forms

The suffixes of the regular verbs (Table 4.5) occur in the following order : tense/ aspect – mood – person. Since there are different zero-marked categories, this order is only realised in the imperfect subjunctive (with the exception of first and third person singular, which are zero-marked).

Aspect is not marked independently from tense ; the imperfect suffix *-áv/ -év* is a portmanteau category which conflates past tense and imperfective aspect. Perfective aspect is expressed by the compound tenses perfect and pluperfect ; a preterit does not or does not exist any more in Tuatschin.

Morphologically, the indirect conditional represents a combination of the suffix of the conditional *-as-/-és-* with the suffix of the subjunctive *-i-*. The indirect conditional is used above all in indirect speech, which triggers the use of subjunctive mood. For examples, see §4.1.2.2.10.

The stem extension *-èsch-* precedes the the tense/aspect, mood, and person markers (see Table 4.9 for examples).


Table 4.3: Auxiliary verb *vagní* 'come'

*<sup>a</sup>Vignéva* is also used, but not frequent.


Table 4.4: Tuatschin verbs ending in *-è* with their Standard Sursilvan equivalents


Table 4.5: Tense/Aspect, mood and personal suffixes of the finite reguverbforms

### 4 Verb phrase

Table 4.5 shows different cases of syncretisms :


There are also cases of zero-marked categories:


Regarding the imperfect, both indicative and subjunctive, as well as the direct and indirect conditional, the *-á*-conjugation patterns with the *-è*-conjugation, and, inversely, the *-ar*-conjugation patterns with the *-í*-conjugation. In these tenses and moods, the verbs ending in *-á* and *-è* have an *-a* whereas the verbs ending in *-ar* and in *í* have an *-é*. Many irregular verbs have an *-è* in these forms, as for instance *ju dèva* 'I gave' (*dá* 'give') or *ju lès* 'I would like' (*vulaj*) 'want' (see §4.1.1.4)

### 4.1.1.2.2 Paradigms of the regular verbs

Table 4.6 and Table 4.7 illustrate the two conjugations deriving from the Latin first conjugation. The difference between the two conjugations concerns above all the infinitive and the feminine past participle, which ends in *-èda* (vs *-ada* in the *a-*conjugation). The ending of the masculine form is the same in both conjugations (*-au*). The imperfect morpheme of the *è*-conjugation is normally *-áv-*, but some verbs have *-èv-*, for example *astgè* 'be allowed', as in *nuṣ astgèvan fá* 'we were allowed to do' (§8.4) or *schè* 'let', as in *a schèvan dá quèlas scúaṣ a da quaj* 'and [we] would let these brooms and so on fall down' (§8.6). The choice of the ending *-èv-* vs *-av-* depends on the verb.

The ending in -*a* of the first person singular present and imperfect indicative is typical of Tuatschin Sursilvan. The standard ending in Sursilvan is -*el* (*jeu giavisch-el* 'I wish'); in the DRG, however, I found one example of *-a* in the variety of Riein, a village situated in the Lumnezia valley (19).



Table 4.6: Regular verbs ending in *-á*

(19) *Jeu giavisch-a bien cunfiert.*

> 1sg wish-prs.1sg good consolation.m.sg

'My heartfelt sympathy.' (Sursilvan, Riein, DRG 4: 327)

This form was current in this local variety of Sursilvan for first person singular present and imperfect, as the following forms show: *jeu astga* 'I am allowed to', *jeu gneva* 'I used to come', *jeu era* 'I was', *jeu suna* 'I play (an instrument)', *jeu sunava* 'I used to play', and so on (examples taken out of the *Questiunari principal* of the DRG, recorded between 1900 and 1920; Ursin Lutz p.c., 2017/04/19).

Table 4.8 lists the verbs ending in *-ar*. Many verbs of this conjugation are built as in Table 4.8 but have one irregular form: the past participle. Some examples are *árdar* 'burn', *árvar* 'open', and *bétar* 'throw', whose participles are *ars/arsa*, *aviart/avjarta*, and *béz/béza*. A list of irregular verbs ending in *-ˈar* is given in Table 4.14.

### 4 Verb phrase


Table 4.7: Regular verbs ending in *-è*

As mentioned above, verbs ending in *-í* which are conjugated regularly take *-èsch* in the forms of the present tense when the stem is stressed (Table 4.9).

### **4.1.1.3 Verbs with stem alternations**

The lists presented in this section contain some verbs ending in *-á*, *-è*, *-ˈar*, and *-í* which display a change in their stem. The alternation depends on whether the stem is stressed or not. Most verbs ending in *-aj* are irregular and will therefore be presented in §4.1.1.4.

For present indicative and subjunctive, only the first person singular and plural will be indicated; for imperfect indicative and subjunctive as well as for conditional, only the first person singular will be noted. For the verbs ending in *-á* the imperfect indicative and subjunctive will not be listed since these forms are

4.1 The verb


Table 4.8: Regular verbs ending in *-ar*

regular, and since the future, the imperfect subjunctive, and the gerund are not used or only rarely used, they will not be mentioned as well.

For reasons of space the imperative will not be indicated in the following tables, but the second person singular imperative corresponds to the third person singular present indicative, and the second person plural imperative corresponds to the second person plural present indicative without its final *-s*: *èla cònta* 'she sings' vs *Cònta!* 'Sing (sg)!', *vus cantájs* 'you (pl) sing' vs *Cantaj!* 'Sing (pl)!'.

The verbs ending in *-á* listed in Table 4.10–Table 4.12 show the following vocalic stem alternations:

• a → aj (*zavrá* 'separate, sort out' → *zajvra*), → au (*ruassá* 'rest' → *ruaussa*), → ja (*anzardá* 'aerate'→ *anzjarda*), → éj (*lavá sé* 'get up' → *léjva sé*), → ia (*samjá* 'dream' → *siamja*), → ò (*sahaná*, 'appreciate' → *sahòna*), → u (*cugljaná* 'cheat' → *cugljuna*)


Table 4.9: Regular verbs ending in *-í* with *-èsch*


Metathesis occurs with *r* in the following cases, with or without change in the vowel:



Table 4.10: Verbs ending in*-á*, first part


*a*Nowadays

 it is only the conditional

*munglás* which is used.

 4.11: Verbs ending in*-á*, second part

Table


Table 4.12: Verbs ending in*-á*, third part

### 4 Verb phrase

The verbs *digrá* 'drip' and *satrá* 'bury' are a different case. What looks like metathesis (*daghira* '(s/he) drips' vs *digrajn* '(we) drip' and *satjara* '(s/he) buries vs *satrajn* '(we) bury') is due to the dropping of the reduced vowel /ɐ/ between *g–r* and *t–r* or, in other words, between a stop and a trill. According to Decurtins (2012: 311 and 973), *digrá* is derived from the mixture of Latin decu̱rrere 'flow off' and cu̱rare 'sieve', whereas *satrá* is derived from Middle Latin subte̱rrare 'bury'.

Verbs ending in *-è* that show stem alternation are listed in Table 4.13. The following stem alternations occur:


The imperfect of the verbs ending in *-agè* is sometimes realised as -*java* instead of -*agjava*, as in *pardjavan* 'they used to preach' vs *pardagjavan* 'idem', or *schabjava* 'used to happen' instead of *schabagjava* 'idem'. The variation between these two forms is free.

Metathesis occurs with *r* in the following cases, with or without change in the vowel:

• ar → ra (*tartgè* 'think' → *tratga*), → rè (*mudargè* 'torment' → *mudrègja*), → ri (*barṣchè* 'burn' → *briṣcha*), → rò (*fufargnè* 'rummage' → *fufrògna*)

The verbs ending in *-ar* that show stem alternation are listed in Table 4.14. The following stem alternations occur:



### 4 Verb phrase


Verbs ending in *-í* that show stem alternation are presented in Table 4.15. The following alternations occur:

• a → aj (*amplaní* 'fill' → *amplajna*), → é (*saglí* 'run' → *séglja*), → ja (*santí* 'feel' → *sjanta*)

Metathesis occurs in *bargí* 'cry' vs *bragja*.

### **4.1.1.4 Irregular verbs**

The irregular verbs *èssar* 'be', *vay* 'have', and *vagní* 'come', which also function as auxiliary verbs, have been presented in §4.1.1.1. The most important other irregular verbs will be presented in Table 4.16 – Table 4.27.


Table 4.14: Verbs ending in*-ar*


Table 4.15: Verbs ending in *-í*

4 Verb phrase

Table 4.16: *sadastadá* 'wake up'


Table 4.17: *dá* 'give' and *stá* 'stay'


*<sup>a</sup>*The form *dètschi* is used by an older consultant and is the only form given in the DRG (5: 65). The whole paradigm of the present subjunctive given in the DRG is *dètschi, dètschias, dètschi, dajan, dajas, dètschian.*

Table 4.18: *fá* 'do' and *trá* 'pull'


### 4 Verb phrase


Table 4.19: *craj* 'believe' and *duaj* 'must'

*<sup>a</sup>*The DRG (4: 370) offers for Sedrun *déi, déjǝs* etc.; the modern forms *daj, dajas* etc. are not accepted by all speakers that were consulted.


Table 4.20: *gudaj* 'enjoy' and *pudaj* 'can, be able'

Table 4.21: *savaj* 'know' and *ṣchaj* 'lie'


*<sup>a</sup>*The short form *sju* is also used in rapid speech.


Table 4.22: *stuaj* 'must' and *tanaj* 'hold'

Table 4.23: *tumaj* 'fear' and *vulaj* 'want'


*a* In combination with *dí* 'say', the form *vuta*, as in *vuta di* 'wants to say', i.e. 'means', is used by some consultants. Most consultatns, however, reject this form.

*<sup>b</sup>*The form *valju* also occurs.

Table 4.24: *vasaj* 'see' and *parvaj* 'feed'




*a Schá* is the Standard Sursilvan form, which is commonly used in Tuatschin. The DRG (10: 499) only notes *schè* for Tuatschin; according to the DRG (10: 502) the forms of the present subjunctive 1pl and 2pl are *schajan* and *schajas*.


### Table 4.26: *ira/ir/í* 'go' and *dí* 'say'

*<sup>a</sup>*An old form is *ju vòmi*.

4.1 The verb


Table 4.27: *fugí* 'lie' and *rí* 'laugh'

### **4.1.2 Usage of non-finite and finite verbal categories**

In this section the usage of the non-finite categories past participle, infinitive, and gerund as well as the finite categories will be analysed, with the exception of the imperative, which will be treated in §5.3.

### **4.1.2.1 Non-finite categories**

### 4.1.2.1.1 Past participle

The past participle is used to form compound (20) and doubly-compound tenses (24) as well as passive voice (21); it is furthermore used attributively and predicatively and may also be nominalised (22 and 23), usually in its feminine form. If the auxiliary verb is *èssar* 'be', the participle agrees with the subject (20).


### 4 Verb phrase


If the past participle is used in compound tenses with the auxiliary *èssar* 'be' or in passive constructions, it is treated like an adjective, which means that (a) it agrees with the subject of the verb (25), thus if the subject has no gender, the participle takes its unmarked form (26), and (b) if in a passive construction the subject follows the participle, it does not agree with it (27 and 28) (see also §5.5.4).

(25) *[...] al* def.m.sg *cantún* canton *ò* have.prs.3sg *circa* about *trènta* thirty *da* of *quèls* dem.m.pl *majnadistrícts,* head\_of\_district.pl *quèls* dem.m.pl *èn* pass.aux.prs.3pl *partí* divide.ptcp.m.pl *ajn<sup>4</sup>* in *ajn* in *ragjúns* region.f.pl *[...].*

'[...] the canton has about thirty of these heads of district, these are divided in regions [...].' (Sadrún, f3; §8.1)

(26) *Òh* oh *gl'* def.m.sg *ampréndar* learn.inf *tudèstg* German.m.sg *è* be.prs.3sg *stau,* cop.ptcp.unm *l'* def.f.sg *antschata* beginning *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *schòn* indeed *stau* cop.ptcp.unm

<sup>4</sup> *Pártar ajn* is a particle verb meaning 'divide'.

4.1 The verb

*in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *curjù̱s.* strange.adj.unm

'Oh, to learn German was, at the beginning this was indeed a little bit strange.' (Zarcúns, m2; §8.13)

(27) *Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *pròpi* exactly *in* indef.m.sg *ljuc* place *... nù* where *tg'* rel *i* expl *vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *schau* leave.ptcp.unm *tùt* all *la* def.f.sg *munizjun* munition *tg'* rel *i* expl *vèva,* exist.impf.3sg *sigir.* sure.adj.unm 'This is exactly a place ... where all the munition was stored, for sure.' (Sadrún, f3; §8.1)

(28) *A* and *lò* there *… sén* upon *quaj* dem.m.sg *intènt* undertaking *ségi* be.prs.sbjv.3sg *è* also *vagnú* pass.aux.ptcp.unm *bagagjau* build.ptcp.unm *quèla* dem.f.sg *caplùta.* chapel 'And there … after this undertaking this chapel was built.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

If the past participle is used attributively, the masculine singular form does not take the predicative *-s* if it has no complements as in *in ùm panṣjunau* 'a retired man'; if it has complements, the participle is treated like a predicative adjective and takes *-s* and can thus be considered an elliptic relative clause (29).

(29) *Al* def.m.sg *tètg* roof *da* of *duaṣ* two.f *alas* side.pl *fatg*make.ptcp*s* m.sg *cun* with *ajssas* plank.f.pl *bétga* neg *splanadas* plane.ptcp.f.pl *[…] aj* cop.prs.3sg *sén* on *latas.* slat.f.pl 'The two-sided roof made of planks that haven't been planed […] are on slats.' (Camischùlas, DRG 3: 583)

The negator *bétga* and some temporal adverbs may intervene between the auxiliary verb and the past participle (30–34).

(30) *Álṣò* well *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *bigja* neg *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *aj* 3sg *agrèssíf* aggressive.adj.unm *[...].* 'Well, I didn't do it in an aggressive way [...].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

### 4 Verb phrase


also used to go.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11) If two clauses which both contain a a compound verb form are conjoined, either the subject (35) or the subject and the auxiliary of the second or third verb may be omitted (36). Note that the subject and the auxiliary verb may also be omitted if the second or third verb requires another auxiliary as in the first clause. An example is (37), where *lavá* 'get up' requires *èssar* 'be' and *mirá* 'look' *vaj*

(35) *Ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *juṣ* go.ptcp.m.sg *avaun* before *nuégl* barn.m.sg *ad* and *a* have.prs.1sg *grju* shout.ptcp.unm *a* and *bargju* cry.ptcp.unm *[…].* 'I went in front of the barn and shouted and cried.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 69)

'have'.

4.1 The verb

(36) las duas sadjalas groma príu ad 3SG have.PRS.3SG take.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.PL two.F bucket.PL cream.F.SG and દે ód tégja a a svanjus. jus be.PRS.3SG go.PTCP.M.SG out\_of hut.F.SG and disappear.PTCP.M.SG 'He [the devil] took the two buckets full of cream and left the hut and disappeared.' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 47)

baud a (37) La damaun èssan aun lavaj DEF.F.SG morning be.PRS.1PL still get\_up.PTCP.M.PL early and mirau da nòs tiars. look.pTcp.unm of poss.1pl.m.pl.animal.pl

'In the morning we got up early and looked after our animals.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 68)

In narrative sequences where the perfect is used for storyline events, the auxiliary verbs may be omitted. In (38), préndar 'take', magljè 'eat', and métar 'put' would take vaj 'have', in contrast to turná 'go back' and ira 'go', which would take èssar 'be'.

(38) A dèvan ajn stiva a and DEM.M.PL COP.IMPF.3PL in living\_room.F.SG and give.IMPF.3PL né jass tròcas ... a nus príu k.o.card\_game.F.PL or k.o.card\_game.M.SG and 1PL take.PTCP.UNM quèls ... pinau tiar, quèls … DEM.M.PL prepare.PTCP.UNM by DEM.M.PL snack.M.PL DEM.F.PL tablas cun sé tgarn a dal tùt ... príu quaj tray.PL with up meat.F.SG and of.DEF.M.SG all take.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM ad i gjù ajn in clavau a and go.PTCP.M.PL down in INDEF.M.SG hay\_barn and eat.PTCP.UNM and sjantar turnaj sé cul cul ... cun after go\_back.PTCP.M.PL up with.DEF.M.SG with.DEF.M.SG with la vaschala vita a lò puspé api DEF.F.SG dishes.F.SG empty.F.SG and put.PTCP.UNM there again and i.

### go.PTCP.M.PL

'And the others were in the living room and were playing card games ... and we took these ... prepared, these snacks, these ... trays with meat and all on it ... we took this and went down into the hay barn and ate it and

### 4 Verb phrase

after we went up back with … with the empty dishes, put them there again and went away.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

### 4.1.2.1.2 Gerund

According to my consultants, the gerund is not used any more in spoken Tuatschin. There is no occurrence of this category in the oral corpus, but it was used by the traditional story tellers whose legends were published in Büchli (1966).

The gerund was used as a complement of a verb of perception and is introduced by *a/ad* (39 and 40).


The gerund also introduced a non-finite causal or temporal subordinate clause (41 and 42).


4.1 The verb

4.1.2.1.3 Infinitive

The infinitive functions either as citation form of the verb or occurs in a nonfinite verb phrase. In the latter case, it may occur as the complement of a modal verb (43 and 44), or it in a verb phrase introduced by the complementiser da/dad (45).

í è (43) Ou' adina aviart a DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG always open.UNM and then can.PRS.2SG.GNR go.INF ajn […]. in

"This is always open, and then you can step in [...].' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)


The infinitive is used in purposive clauses, be it after a verb of movement followed by the subordinator a (46) or after the subordinator pr /par (47).

(46) A A lu, agl aucségnar ... da Sadrún ... è and then DEF.M.SG priest be.PRS.3SG of PN saméz sén via í ajnta Ruèras a par REFL.put.PTCP.M.SG on way.F.SG SUBORD go.INF into PN SUBORD a purtá agit sògn jéli […]. bring.INF help.M.SG and give.INF holy.M.SG oil

'And then, the priest ... of Sedrun ... set off in order to go to Rueras and bring help and administer the sacrament of anointing [ ... ]. (Sadrún, m6, క్రికి.5)

### 4 Verb phrase

(47) *[...] èl* 3sg.m *duvrava* use.impf.3sg *quaj* dem.m.sg *mél* mule *pr̩* subord *trá,* pull.inf *pr̩* subord *trá* pull.inf *lèna* wood.coll *sé* up *da* from *Cavòrgja.* pn '[...] he used that mule for transporting wood up from Cavorgia.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

If a verb is fronted in order to topicalise it, it occurs nominalised, i.e. as an infinitive. The finite verb form remains in its initial position, but the subject is moved after the finite verb (48).

(48) *Na* no *na,* no *a* and *durmí* sleep.inf *durmévan* sleep.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *cò.* here 'No, no, and as for sleeping, we would sleep here.' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

In subject sentences the infinitive is either modified by the definite masculine singular article (49) or not (50), without difference in meaning.


### **4.1.2.2 Finite categories**

### 4.1.2.2.1 Present indicative

Present tense is formed with the verb stem and the personal endings, which means that it is a zero-marked form, in contrast to, for instance, the imperfect, which is characterised by the suffix *-*áv/-év/-èv.

Present tense is used with all verbs that refer to an event that includes the moment of speech, independently of the aktionsart of the verb. In (51) the present tense refers to an ongoing activity, in (52) to a temporary state, and in (53) to a permanent state.

4.1 The verb


Present tense also fulfils the function of habitual (54) or refers to other discontinuous activities (55).

(54) *A* in *Cazis* pn *èr'* cop.impf.1sg *ju* 1sg *ajn* in *tgòmbra,* room.f.sg *álṣò* well *qu'* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *tgòmbras* room.f.pl *da* of *trajs,* three *a* and *lu* then *qu'* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *adina,* always *ina* one.f.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *gè* of\_course *adina* always *prsula, ̩* alone.f.sg *a* and *nus* 1pl *trajs* three *vèvan* have.impf.3sg *ábar* but *… súpar!* super

'In Cazas I was in a room, well these were rooms for three, and then this was always, one [of the three] is always alone, of course, but the three of us, we had … a great time.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

(55) *Ina* one.f.sg *studègja* study.prs.3sg *… a* in *a* in *Winterthur* pn *[...].* 'One studies … in in Winterthur [...].' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

Present tense also refers to an imminent future (56 and 57).

### 4 Verb phrase


Present tense is the usual way to refer to future situations of any type (58).

(58) *Damaun* tomorrow */ Ajn* in *duṣ* two.m *òns* year.pl *fagjajn* do.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *quaj.* dem.unm 'Tomorrow / In two years we'll do that.' (Sadrún, m10)

There are also instances of narrative present whose function is to render the story more vivid (59).

(59) *A* and *lu,* then *agl* def.m.sg *aucségnar* priest *… da* of *Sadrún* pn *… è* be.prs.3sg *saméz* refl.put.ptcp.m.sg *sén* on *via* way.f.sg *par* subord *í* go.inf *ajnta* into *Ruèras* pn *a* subord *purtá* bring.inf *agit* help.m.sg *a* and *dá* give.inf *sògn* holy.m.sg *jéli* oil *né* or *al* def.m.sg *davùs* last *sacramèn* sacrament *tga* rel *dèvan* give.impf.3pl *da* dat *quels* dem.m.pl *… mòribù̱nds,* dying.pl *basta,* enough *agl* def.m.sg *aucségnar* priest *végn* come.prs.3sg *atrás* through *… Zarcúns* pn *a* and *lu* then *auda* hear.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *las* def.f.pl *stréjas* witch.pl *sé* up *cò* here *séssum* uppermost *la* def.f.sg *val* valley *da* of *Lòndadusa* pn *òni* have.prs.3pl.3pl *clumau:* call.ptcp.unm

'And then, the priest … of Sedrun … set off in order to go to Rueras and bring help and administer the sacrament of anointing or the Holy

### 4.1 The verb

Sacrament they would give to those … dying people. Well, the priest comes through Zarcuns and then he hears the witches up there, they called from the uppermost part of the Londadusa valley:' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5)

In this example, the first verb referring to story line events is modified by the perfect tense (*è saméz sén via*), the two verbs that follow are modified by the present tense (*végn* and *auda*); the last one (*òni clumau*) is again modified by the perfect tense.

### 4.1.2.2.2 Imperfect indicative

The imperfect indicative is formed by the suffix *-áv/-év/-èv*. The distribution of the allomorphs is as follows. *-áv* is used with all verbs ending in *–á* and with most verbs ending in *-è*, *-év* is used with all verbs ending in *-ar* and *-í*, and *-èv* is used with some verbs ending in *-è*, with most irregular verbs ending in *-aj*, and with some other irregular verbs.

The basic functions of the imperfect indicative are to refer to imperfective aspect in the past with all types of lexical aspect (60 and 61),<sup>5</sup> to past habitual (62 and 63), or to an unspecified repetition of actions in the past (64).

(60) *Api* and *grad* exactly *ajn* in *quèl* dem.m.sg *mumèn* moment *vagnév'* come.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *cégn* swan *… gròn* big.m.sg.unm *ni–* or *vi* over *datiar* next\_to *ad* and *èra* cop.impf.3sg *lò* there *usché* so *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *dòmina̱nt.* dominant.adj.unm

'And precisely at that moment a big swan … was coming to the place where I was, a bit a dominant one. (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)'


<sup>5</sup>But see (68 – 73).

### 4 Verb phrase


### 4.1.2.2.3 Perfect indicative

The perfect is formed with the auxiliary verbs *èssar* 'be' or *vaj* 'have' and the past participle. If the verb is conjugated with *èssar*, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number.

The following verbs are conjugated with *èssar*:


The main function of the perfect is to express perfective aspect, i.e. to refer to the whole situation with beginning, middle, and end, with or without a relation to the present (65–67).

(65) *Ju* 1sg *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *jus* go.ptpc.m.sg *sé* up *Culmatsch* pn *ina* indef.f.sg *dumèngja.* Sunday 'One Sunday I went up to Culmatsch.' (Surajn, Büchli 1966: 128)

4.1 The verb

(66) *[...] api* and *vòu* have.prs.1sg.1sg *anflau* find.ptcp.m.unm *in* indef.m.sg *bi* beautiful.m.sg *ljuc* place *[...].* '[...] and then I found a nice place [...].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

(67) *A* and *lu,* then *agl* def.m.sg *aucségnar* priest *… da* of *Sadrún* pn *… è* be.prs.3sg *saméz* refl.put.ptcp.m.sg *sén* on *via* way.f.sg *par* subord *í* go.inf *ajnta* into *Ruèras* pn *[...].* 'And then, the priest … of Sedrun … set off in order to go to Rueras [...].' (Sadrún, m6,§8.5)

In Romance languages like French, when the perfective tenses modify a stative verb like *connaître* 'know' or *savoir* 'know', it usually has an inchoative meaning: *J'ai connu Michel à une fête.* 'I met Michel at a party', or *J'ai su qu'elle était malade.* 'I was told that she was ill'. But in Tuatschin, the perfect is used with these stative verbs (which take the form *ancanùschar* and *savaj*) without an inchoative meaning (68–70). In other words, in these cases the verbs refer imperfectively to the situation, which is underlined by the use of the adverb *schòn* 'already' in (69).

(68) *Èl* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *ancanùschju* know.ptcp.unm *la* def.f.sg *familja,* family *mù* but *maj* never *détg* tell.ptcp.unm *òra* out *tgi* who *èri.* cop.impf.sbjv.3sg 'He knew the family, but never said who they were.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 139)


To get the inchoative meaning, Tuatschin uses *amprèndar d' ancanùschar* (71), literally 'learn to know', and *udí* (72) 'hear'.

### 4 Verb phrase


As for *vaj* 'have', there is no difference between the use of the perfect or the imperfect, at least according to the native speakers I have consulted. Both the perfect in (73) and the imperfect in (74) could be interpreted as inchoative or as a permanent state.


As seen in (38) in §4.1.2.1.1, story-line events can also be referred to only with the past participle, without the auxiliary verbs *èssar* or *vaj*.

4.1.2.2.4 Pluperfect indicative

The pluperfect fulfils the function of indicating the perfective aspect of a situation that is situated before another situation in the past (75–77).

4.1 The verb


'And we had such a wonderful time. I was now, eh, in fact I had been lucky to share the room with Romansh girls.' (Camischulas, f6, §8.4)

### 4.1.2.2.5 Future

According to my consultants, the future is almost never used; in order to refer to a future situation, present tense is used. The only example of the future in the oral corpus is (78).

### 4 Verb phrase

(78) Ad ana d'òtgòntasjat vajn nus gju and year.F.SG of eighty-seven have.PRS.1PL 1PL have.PTCP.M.UNM ina vòtazjun fadarala șur da las sèndas, sch' i INDEF.F.SG vote federal over of DEF.F.PL trail.PL whether EXPL prèndar ajn quaj né bétg. végn a FUT.AUX.3SG COMP take.INF in DEM.UNM or NEG 'And in 1987 we had a federal vote about the trails, [about] whether it would be adopted or not.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

### 4.1.2.2.6 Doubly-compound tenses

There are two doubly-compound tenses: perfect (79 and 80) and pluperfect (81). They usually fulfil the same functions as the simple compound tenses, but they express a longer temporal distance in the past. Note that in (81), the function of the doubly-compound pluperfect is to express the habitual, a function which is usually fulfilled by the imperfect.


'And [since] the year they stored these eh figures one has always said «the living room of the Jews», has it been called since.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

4.1 The verb

(81) A A ... ad in ju aun bégn, lu òn, sa and and INDEF.M.SG year know.PRS.1SG 1sG still well then vèvan nus lu gju fatg in tòc have.IMPF.1PL 1PL then have.PTCP.UNM do.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG prank humòrístic da la músic' anòra. from DEF.F.SG music out funny 'And ... and one year, I still know very well, we from the music had played a funny prank.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

4.1.2.2.7 Progressive aspect

The progressive aspect is formed with the copula èssar, the preposition vid(a) 'at', with (82) or without (83) the masculine singular definite article, and the infinitive.


4.1.2.2.8 Present and perfect subjunctive

Subjunctive mood, be it present, perfect, or imperfect, is characterised by the suffix -i(-)6

Subjunctive mood mostly occurs in some types of object clauses and in adjunct clauses introduced by avaun tga 'before', par tga 'in order to', tòca tga 'until', or sènza tga 'without that'. 7 In the corpus, subjunctive mood occurs in three tenses: present, perfect, and imperfect. Subjunctive imperfect will be treated in the next section.

The most important subjunctive triggers occurring in the corpus are

· (a) verbs of speaking: dí 'say', dumandá'ask', raquintá 'tell', and udí 'hear, be told';

<sup>6</sup>See §4.1.1.2.1.

<sup>7</sup>The most thorough analysis of mood in Standard Sursilvan is Grünert (2003).

### 4 Verb phrase


In object clauses the complementiser is often absent (84 and 93). Examples (84–87) illustrate the use of subjunctive mood, present and perfect, with verbs of speaking.

(84) *A* and *lu* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *détg* say.ptcp.unm *èl* 3sg.m *sapi* can.prs.sbjv.3sg *bigja* neg *vagní* come.inf *da* from *luòra,* there\_out *ju,* 1sg *èl* 3sg.m *stètgi* stay.prs.sbjv.3sg *mal,* bad *èl* 3sg.m *mòndi* go.prs.sbjv.3sg *da* from *via* road.f.sg *òra* out *[...].*

'And then he said he couldn't walk on that path, that I - that he was sorry, [but] that he would walk on the road [...].' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)


'And the legend says … that the witches of the Caschlè which were up

4.1 The verb

there and used to do sorcery had carried this slab on a ... silk thread […].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5)

(87) udju tg' èl ségi mazauns. 1sG have.prs.1sG hear.pTCP.UNM COMP 3sG.M COP.PRS.SBJV.3sG ill.M.SG 'I was told that he was ill.' (Ruèras, m10)

Subjunctive mood is also used in free indirect speech, which is characterised by the lack of an introductory verb (88).

 Èl èri (88) avaun caplùta a vagi 3SG.M COP.IMPF.SBJV.3SG in front chapel and have.PRS.SBJV.3SG tga quèls èn saspuantaj, vju see.PTCP.UNM COMP DEM.M.PL mule.PL be.PRS.3PL REFL.frighten.PTCP.M.PL ėl ... dad api vagi and have.prs.sbjv.3sg 3sg.m think.pTCP.UNM COMP go.INF over on via tanaj sé èls. ... a road.F.SG - and hold.INF up 3PL.M 'He was in front of the chapel and had seen that these mules ran away

and he thought ... that he would go on the road ... and stop them.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

In (89) and (90), the sentence starts with a verb in indicative mood, which represents the words of the narrator, and then goes on in subjunctive mood, which represents the words of the army.

(89) L' autar dé va ju gju la lubiantscha DEF.M.SG other day have.PRS.1SG 1SG have.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG permission dad í vidajn, ábar stòpi prèndar malitèr cun ATTR go.INF in but must.PRS.SBJV.1SG take.INF military.M.SG with mè, tga vajan ... fùnc a prèndar ah, 1SG REL have.PRS.SBJV.3PL radio.M.SG and can.PRS.SBJV.3PL take.INF eh da ... ir davùs in dí cu nus vajan say.INF when 1PL have.PRS.SBJV.1PL to go.INF behind INDEF.M.SG cuélm. mountain

'The day after I got permission to go there, but I needed to take with me some soldiers that had a radio and would say when we should ... go behind a mountain [to protect ourselves].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

<sup>8</sup> sin instead of sén

### 4 Verb phrase

(90) […] a mintga vaschnaunca ö lu stavju and every municipality.F.sG have.PRS.3sG then must.PTCP.UNM nùca la dá ajn tùt tgé ca ca la vagi, give.INF in all what REL 3SG.F have.PRS.SBJV.3SG where 3SG.F lògans vagi have.PRS.SBJV.3SG place.M.PL with signpost.F.PL and DEF.F.PL trail.PL all '[…] and every municipality had then to inform about everything they had, where they had places with signposts and trails, everything.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

Examples (91-93) illustrate the use of subjunctive mood with verbs of opinion.


'I think that this is not often done.' (Ruèras, DRG 1: 393)

(93) Api sjantar vajn nus tartgau \_ nus sápian and after durmí òra […]. sleep.INF out 'And then we thought we would have a good sleep […].' (Camischulas, f6, 88.4)

Examples (94-97) show the use of subjunctive mood with directive speech act verbs.

 (94) tga quaj bétg. look.IMP.2SG COMP DEM.UNM there become.PRS.SBJV.3SG NEG 'Make sure that this does not going to happen.' (DRG 5: 535)

4.1 The verb

(95) *Té* 2sg *mira* look.imp.2sg *lu* then *tg'* comp *al* def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *fétschi* do.prs.sbjv.3sg *lu* then *mintga* every *dé,* day.m.sg *préndi* take.prs.sbjv.3sg *gjù* down *quaj* dem.unm *a* and *ṣchubrègi* clean.prs.sbjv.3sg *a* and *fétschi* do.prs.sbjv.3sg *sé* up *da* of *néjf.* new.adj.unm

'And you, make sure that your grandfather does it every day, that he takes them off, that he cleans them and puts them on again.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(96) *[...] lò* there *végni* pass.aux.prs.3sg.expl *[...] rujau* ask.ptcp.unm *tgé* comp *Nòssadùna* Our\_Lady.f.sg *laschi* let.prs.sbjv.3sg *madirá* ripen.inf *bégn* well *al* def.m.sg *graun* cereals *ajn* in *Tujétsch.* pn

'[...] there they pray that the Virgin Mary let grow well the cereals in the Tujetsch Valley.' (Camischùlas, Büchli 1966: 94)

(97) *Ju* 1sg *vi* want.prs.1sg *bétg* neg *tga* comp *la* def.f.sg *tgèsa* house *ardi.* burn.prs.sbjv.3sg 'I don't want the house to burn.' (Sadrún, m5)

In purposive clauses, the conjunctions *par tga* or *tga* are used (98–100).

(98) *A* and *la* def.f.sg *sèra* evening *par* subord *tga* comp *briṣchi* burn.prs.sbjv.3sg *bétg* neg *… vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *quaj,* dem.unm *quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *ajnagjù* in\_down *cul* with.def.m.sg *maun* hand *èra* also *sènza* without *… [vòns]* [glove.m.pl] *a* and *trèva* pull.impf.3sg *vidò̱* out *còtgla* charcoal.coll *gjù* down *sé* up *sél* on.def.m.sg *plantschju.* floor

'And in the evening, to avoid it burning … was that, there he went into [the fire] with one hand, also without [gloves], and pulled out charcoal from down there up to the floor.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(99) *A* and *quaj* dem.unm *stèvnṣ* must.impf.1pl.1pl *èssar* cop.inf *… pulits-pulits* red~well\_behaved.m.pl *l'* def.f.sg *jamna* week *… tg'* comp *al* def.m.sg *bap* father *dètschi* give.prs.sbjv.3sg *in* one.m.sg

### 4 Verb phrase

frang a miaz. franc and half.M.SG 'And we had to be ... very well-behaved during the week ... so that my father would give [us] one and a half francs.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

(100) ô dau las sjat." "Lu EXPL have.PRS.3SG give.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.PL seven then cuschaj \_tg' ins audi." be\_quiet.IMP.2PL - SUBORD GNR hear.PRS.SBJV.3SG ""[…] It has struck seven o'clock." "Then be quiet so we can hear." (Gadola 1935: 87)

The subordinator avaun 'before' occurs as avaun tga (101), avaun ca (102), and avaun ca tga (103). In (103) subjunctive mood is used, in contrast to (101) and (102) where indicative mood is used.


4.1 The verb

A similar hesitation between indicative and subjunctive can be observed with tòca or tòca tga 'until'. In (104) tòca triggers subjunctive and in (105) tòca tga triggers indicative.


would help until one was again in momentum […].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

In the corpus, sènza tga 'without' only occurs with subjunctive (106 and 107).

(106) è í vidò gljunsch a paj 3SG.F can.IMPF.3SG also go.INF over\_out far on foot.M.SG stòpi tumaj la sènza tgu without subord.1sg must.prs.sbjv.1sg fear.INF comp 3sg.f mòndi a funs. go.PRS.SBJV.3sG to ground.M.SG '[ ... ] she could go far on foot without me having to be afraid that she

could drown.' (Ruèras, f7, §8.14)

f6, §8.4)

(107) sjantar sènza tga 3sg.f come.PRS.3sg after without subord 1pl want.PRS.SBJV.1PL 'She follows us without us wanting [it].' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

### 4 Verb phrase

If a subordinate clause depends on a clause whose verb occurs in subjunctive mood, the clause which normally does not take subjunctive takes it by syntactic attraction. An example is (108), where the subjunctive occurs in the relative clause which normally requires indicative.


There are some cases where conditional is used instead of subjunctive (109).

(109) *Quèl* dem.m.sg *lèva* want.impf.3sg *bétga* neg *craj* believe.inf *tga* comp *'ls* def.m.pl *tiars* animal.pl *raṣdassan* speak.cond.3pl *da* of *Nadal-nòtg* Christmas-night.f.sg *durònt* during *mèssa* mass.f.sg *[...].* 'He didn't want to believe that the animals speak during mass on Christmas Eve [...].' (Tschamùt, Büchli 1966: 132)

There are two cases of the use of the subjunctive which I could not explain. I therefore asked the specialist of the use of mood in Sursilvan, Matthias Grünert, if he could explain these cases.

The first case is the subjunctive in an object clause which depends on the verb *savaj* 'know' (110).

(110) *A* and *las* def.f.pl *sòras* nun.pl *savèvan* know.impf.3pl *tga* comp *nus* 1pl *trajs* three *nus* 1pl *vágian* have.prs.sbjv.1pl *adina* always *u-léjgar,* elat-funny.adj.unm *a* and *nus* 1pl *mò̱ndian* go.prs.sbjv.1pl *bugèn* with\_pleasure *cò* here *gjù* down *à* to *scùla,* school.f.sg *a* and *nus* 1pl *fè̱tschian* do.prs.sbjv.1pl *filistùcas* prank.pl *[...].* 'And the nuns knew that the three of us, we always had fun, and that we liked to come to school down here, and that we used to play pranks [...].' (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

### 4.1 The verb

Matthias Grünert (p.c. 2020/05/25) explains that the subjunctive after *saver*, especially in the imperfect, is well documented in Standard Sursilvan. Grünert's explanation for such cases is that the situation referred to in the object clause is presented from the perspective of the subject of the object clause and not of the subject of *saver*.

The second example concerns the use of the subjunctive in a conditional sentence which depends on the particle verb *anflá ò/òra* 'find out' (111).

(111) *[...] api* and *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *anflau* find.ptcp.unm *òra* out *scha* if *nus* 1pl *mò̱ndian* go.prs.sbjv.1pl *a* and *sé̱jṣian* sit.prs.sbjv.1pl *spèr* next *la* def.f.sg *sòr'* nun *Andréa,* pn *lèza* dem.f.sg *savèva* know.impf.3sg *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.m.sg '[...] and then we had found out that if we went to sit next to Sister

Andrea, she knew Romansh.' (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

In this case, Matthias Grünert states that the subjunctive in an object clause depending on *anflar ora* is also documented in Standard Sursilvan (112).

(112) *Gia* already *il* def.m.sg *pievel* people *egipzian* Egyptian *haveva* have.impf.3sg *anflau* find.ptcp.unm *ora* out *che* comp *mèl* honey *d'* of *aviuls* bee.m.pl *seigi* be.prs.sbjv.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *remiedi.* drug 'The Egyptian people had already found out that honey is a drug.' (Standard Sursilvan, La Quotidiana 2018/05/04)

However, (111) is highly elliptic and there is no object clause depending on *anflá òra* 'find out'; the subjunctive occurs in a conditional clause instead of the direct conditional. Therefore, (111) could be the opposite of (109), where the direct conditional is used instead of the subjunctive. In any case the use of the subjunctive in (111) is not accepted by other consultants.

### 4.1.2.2.9 Imperfect subjunctive

Imperfect subjunctive is very rare in the corpus, where it only occurs with verbs of speaking (113 and 114) and verbs of opinion (115).

### 4 Verb phrase


4.1.2.2.10 Direct and indirect conditional

The direct conditional mostly occurs in conditional sentences, in the protasis as well as in the apodosis. The protasis (118 and 119) and the apodosis (117) are sometimes not expressed overtly. The direct conditional has a simple and a compound form. The simple form expresses present counter-factuality (116 and 117).

(116) *A* and *lu* then *Prdatsch ̩* pn *… plénansé* more\_uphill *cò* here *ancúntar* in\_direction *Tgòm* pn *… ṣaj* cop.prs.3sg *ina* indef.f.sg *rùsna,* hole *quaj* dem.unm *fùṣ* cop.cond.3sg *è* also *aun* indeed *intarassant* interesting.m.unm *sch'* if *ins* gnr *savés,* know.cond.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *datèscha* date.prs.3sg *da* from *gl* def.m.sg *òn* year *ju* 1sg *… a* have.prs.1sg *ussa* now *bigja* neg *grat* just *prèsèn,* present *méli* thousand *a* and *sistschian* six\_hundred *a* and *zatgéj.* something

'And then Pardatsch … a bit more uphill here in direction of Tgom …

4.1 The verb

there is a cave, it would indeed be interesting if one knew, this is dated, I … don't have it exactly in mind, sixteen hundred something.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(117) *Té* 2sg *savèssaṣ* can.cond.2sg *í* go.inf *cul* with.def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *ajn* up *Pardatsch.* pn 'You could go up to Pardatsch with your grandfather.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

The compound form expresses past counter-factuality (118 and 119).

(118) *[...] nuṣ* 1pl *astgèvan* be\_allowed.impf.1pl *bégja* neg *raṣdá* speak.inf *ròmòntsch,* Romansh.m.sg *inṣ* gnr *vèṣ* have.cond.3sg *gè* after\_all *savju* can.ptcp.unm *dá* give.inf *la* def.f.sg *bùca* mouth *ṣur* over *dlas* of.def.f.pl *sòras.* nun.pl

'[...] we were not allowed to speak Romansh, as a matter of fact one could have made derisive remarks about the nuns.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

(119) *[...] ju* 1sg *fùṣ* be.cond.1sg *ina* indef.f.sg *sèra* evening *maj* never *id'* go.ptcp.f.sg *ò* out *da* of *tgèṣa* home.f.sg *la* def.f.sg *sèra* evening *da* of *stgir.* dark.m.unm

'[...] I would never have left home in the evening when it was dark.' (Sadrún, f2, §8.6)

As examples (116–119) show, the final *-s* of the singular persons and of the second person plural of the direct conditional is realised as [ṣ] if it is followed by a vowel without a pause as is the case with all forms of the verbal paradigms that end in *-s*. Note, however, that if the conditional is followed by the expletive pronoun or the pronoun of the third person plural which is not marked for gender, both *i*, the ending of the conditional is pronounced [i] as in *duèss-i* 'should.cond.3sg-expl' §8.8.

Examples (120) and (121) illustrate the indirect conditional, which occurs in object clauses that are governed by a speech act verb like *dumandá* 'ask' or *dí* 'say'. (122) illustrates the compound indirect conditional.

### 4 Verb phrase


'[...] and then I … phoned him and said that my husband had died as they knew, but … that I would like to keep doing this job [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(122) *Èl* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *tg'* comp *èl* 3sg.m *vèvi* have.cond.indir.3sg *vju* see.ptcp.unm *èls.* 3pl.m 'He said that he had seen them.' (Sadrún, m6)

### 4.1.2.2.11 Tense agreement

In contrast to other Romance varieties, Tuatschin has no tense agreement. In object clauses, it is always the tense that would occur in direct speech which is used. This is probably connected to the fact that Tuatschin, as well as Standard Sursilvan, uses subjunctive after verbs of speaking or verbs of opinion, be they affirmative or negated, also in contrast to other Romance varieties. An example is (123).


4.1 The verb

mòrts […]. die.PTCP.M.SG '[…] and then I … phoned him and said that my husband had died […].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

In this example, perfect subjunctive is used (ségi mòrts) and not pluperfect subjunctive (\*èri mòrts), which does not occur in the corpus. In direct speech, perfect indicative would be used: «Mi' ùm è mòrts.» 'My husband has died.'

4.1.2.2.12 The construction vaj tga 'have that'

It has not been possible to determine the exact function of vaj tga 'have that' (124), (126), and (127), or végn tga 'come that' (125), but the examples suggest that the construction focuses on the current relevance of the event the verb refers to (124 and 125) or on habituality in the past (126 and 127).


drew us to go.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

### 4 Verb phrase

### **4.1.3 Particle verbs**

A particle verb is a verb that combines with an adverb to form a semantic unit. An example is *fá* gjù, literally 'make down', and which means 'make an appointment'. The origin of such structures is controversial: they are considered either a genuine Romansh structure, a loan from German or Swiss German, or both. *Fá gjù*, however, is a clear case of calquing from Swiss German. In Swiss German, 'make an appointment' is [ˈˈabˈmaxə]. In this lexeme, the prefix *ab-* has been interpreted as [ˈabə] 'down', hence *gjù*, and [ˈmaxə] means 'do, make', which leads to the particle verb *fá gjù*.

There is an important difference between the German and the Romansh construction: In German, Standard or Swiss, the particle is a verbal prefix which in simple tenses is located at the end of the sentence, as in (128).

(128) *[ix* 1sg *max* make *ˈjedə* every *ta:g* day *mit* with *əm* him *ab]* ptcl 'I make an appointment with him every day.' (Swiss German, own knowledge)

In such cases, the particle follows the verb in Tuatschin (and other Sursilvan varieties) (129).

(129) *Ju* 1sg *fétsch* make.prs.1sg *gjù* down *cun* with *èl* 3sg.m *mintga* every *dé.* day.m.sg 'I make an appointment with him every day.' (Sadrún, m4)

However, in Tuatschin and other Sursilvan varieties, the particle is not immediately adjacent to the verb, since some elements may intervene between the verb and the particle. These elements are inverted subjects – pronouns (130) or full noun phrases (131) –, the negator *bétga* and its variants (132), as well as other adverbs like *aun* 'still', *è/èra* (133) 'also', *lu* 'then' (133), *magari* 'sometimes' (134), *maj* 'never' (135), *pròpi* 'exactly' (136), *puspè* 'again' (137), or *schòn* 'certainly' (138).

(130) *Damaun* tomorrow *prèn* take.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sé* up *èl.* 3sg.m 'Tomorrow I will lift him up.' (Sadrún, m6)

4.1 The verb

	- '[...] and then they also gave [us homework] to write plays [...].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

'Ah, what … they really mined one does not know exactly [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(137) *Prèn* take.imp.2sg *puspè* again *sé* up *quaj!* dem.unm 'Lift this again!' (Sadrún, m9)

### 4 Verb phrase

(138) *Al* def.m.sg *plé* most *mal* bad *stùn* stay.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *pal* for.def.m.sg *bian* good *cazè.* shoe *Al* def.m.sg *pòlisch* thumb *crèscha* grow.prs.3sg *schòn* certainly *ansjaman.* together 'I am very sorry for the shoe of good quality. My big toe will certainly knit together again.' (Berther 1998: 51)

The adverbs presented in (130 to 138) must stand between the verb and its particle; the adverbs *savèns* 'often' (139 and 140) and *spèrt* (141–144) as well as *dabòt* (145), both 'rapidly', may occur between the verb and its particle or may follow the particle.


4.1 The verb

The adverb *mintgataun* 'sometimes', which is a synonym of *magari*, may not occur between the verb and the particle (146).

(146) *\*Ju* 1sg *prèn* take.prs.1sg *mintgataun* sometimes *sé* up *èl.* 3sg.m 'Sometimes I lift him up.' (Sadrún, m6)

In contrast to German, direct objects, be they pronominal or nominal, may not stand between the verb and the particle: *bétar navèn quaj* 'throw away this' vs. *\*bétar quaj navèn* 'throw this away', or *prèndar sé èl/agl ufaun* 'lift up him/the child' vs *\*prèndar èl/agl ufaun sé* 'lift him/the child up'. A further example of the position of the personal pronoun with respect to the particle can be found in (147).

(147) *A* and *nuṣ* 1pl *duṣ* two.m *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *dad* to *í* go.inf *a* subord *rimná* collect.inf *quèls* dem.m.pl *pòrs,* pig.pl *prèndar* take.inf *òr,* out *schá* let.inf *ò* out *èls,* 3pl.m *ò* out *da* of *nuégl.* barn.m.sg 'And the two of us had to go and collect these pigs, take out, let them out, out of the barn.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

### **4.1.4 Copulative verbs**

Copulative verbs are *èssar* 'be', *paraj dad èssar* 'seem', and the change of state verb *vagní* 'become'.

The copula *èssar* 'be' is a general copula which allows non-verbal elements to fulfil predicative functions, e.g. nouns (148), adjectives (149), prepositional phrases in locative (150), temporal (151), or comitative (152) function, or adverbs (153).

(148) *A* and *qu'* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *pròpi* precisely *ina* indef.f.sg *… pulit* very *grònda* big *plata [...].* slab 'And this really is a … very big slab [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5) (149) *Quaj èra in' jèda ... brutal tiar*

dem.unm cop.impf.3sg one.f.sg time terrible.adj.unm among *nus,* 1pl *bèn-bèn.* red~really 'Once it was terrible among us, really.' (Sèlva, f2, §8.6

### 4 Verb phrase


'Anyhow my, my mother and the mother of my mate who was with me … had had to help us [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

(153) *Gè* yes *scù* as *bjè* a\_lot *autar* other.adj.unm *è* also *tg'* rel *è* be.prs.3sg *samidau.* refl.change.ptcp.unm *Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *usché.* so

'Yes, as many other things that also have changed. That's how things are.' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

The following examples illustrate the functions of *paraj dad èssar* 'seem' (154) and *vagní* 'become' (155 and 156).


4.1 The verb

(156) vagnida tùt còtschna […]. 3SG.F be.IMPF.3SG become.PTCP.F.SG completely red.F.SG

'[ ... ] she had turned completely red [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

### 4.1.5 Existential verbs

Existential constructions are formed with the expletive pronoun i, less frequently with quaj 'this', in the subject position and the verbs èssar 'be' (157–162) or dá 'give' (163-168).

As is the case with quaj (see §3.2.2.1, examples (57-60), the existential verb agrees with the expletive subject pronoun, but not with the predicative noun, which means that if the predicative noun is plural, the verb form is singular (157).


netimes EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL moreover rock.COLL REL stèv' ó in téc ... . stand.IMPF.3sG out INDEF.M.SG bit

'[ ... ] and from time to time there were rocks protruding a bit ... . ? (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(160) Ér stau bjè sé lò. saj yesterday be.PRS.3SG.EXPL EXIST.PTCP.UNM many tourist.PL up there 'Yesterday there were many tourists up there.' (Sadrún, m4)

### 4 Verb phrase


4.1 The verb

### ansjaman.

together

'Well, when there were leftovers, they would sometimes be collected for two or three days and then put all together in a ... all together.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

 lu al pròxim, in dls (167) pròxims unvjarns ... one of.DEF.M.PL next.PL winter.PL and then DEF.M.SG next ỏi dau ina grònda navada […]. have.prs.3sg.expl exist.ptcp.unm indef.f.sg big snowfall 'And then the next, one of the next winters ... there was a big snowfall [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5)

(168) Quaj èra ju gjù ina grònda lavina DEM.UNM be.IMPF.3SG go.PTCP.UNM down INDEF.F.SG big avalanche vèva ... déstruí ina grònda part ... a and have.IMPF.3SG destroy.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG huge part dl vitg è of.DEF.M.SG village uppermost PN and have.IMPF.3sG also dau mòrts [ ... ]. EXIST.PTCP.UNM dead.M.PL

'Then a huge avalanche went down ... and ... destroyed a big part of the village in the upper part of Rueras ... and people died [ ... ]. (Sadrún, m6, ઠ્ઠક.5)

Examples (169) and (170) show the occurrence of dá 'give' and èssar 'be' in the same context. Furthermore, (169) also contains two examples with the expletive pronoun i and two examples without it.

(169) Álșò i dèva òns nùca tga gudignavan well EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL where REL earn.IMPF.3PL nùca tg'èra nùndétg, ad i sèra òns incredibly and EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL where REL EXIST.IMPF.3SG aua, ad èra òns nùca tga spardévan. water and EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL where REL lose.IMPF.3PL 'Well, there were years when they earned ... a lot of money, and there were years with rain, and years when they would lose money.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.9)

### 4 Verb phrase

(170) *[...] a* and *lu* then *èri* exist.impf.3sg.expl *è* also *quèls* dem.m.pl *prígals* danger *tga* rel *dèva* exist.impf.3sg *[...] sén* on *ira,* go.inf *naturálmajn* natural.f.sg.adv *cu* when *i* 3pl *vagnévan* come.impf.3pl *anavùs* back *[...].*

'[...] and then there were these dangers which [one encountered] when travelling, of course when they would come back [...].' (Sadrún, m5, §8.9)

### **4.1.6 Modal verbs**

The following modal verbs occur in the corpus: *astgè* 'be allowed', *duaj* 'must, should', *èssar da* 'must, have to' *munglá* 'must', *pudaj* 'can, be able', *savaj* 'can', *schè/schá* 'let, allow', *stuaj* 'must, have to', *vaj da* 'have to', and *vulaj* 'want'.

Obligation is expressed by *èssar da* 'must, have to' (173), *duaj* 'must, should' (174), *munglá* 'must' (175) 9 , *vaj da* 'have to' (176–172), and *stuaj* 'must, have to' (177 and 178). Note that *èssar da* is impersonal and the complementiser *da* does not have to be adjacent to *vaj* (171 and 172).


<sup>9</sup>Nowadays *munglá* is only used with conditional mood.

4.1 The verb

(174) aada la natira ad yes exactly so but 1sG one.F.SG of DEF.F.SG nature and adina ... vulju fá mi' òbligazjun a have.PRS.3SG always - want.PTCP.UNM do.INF POSS.1SG.F.SG obligation a finju, a è fá. and finish.PTCP.UNM and DEM.M.PL must.PRS.3PL also do.INF 'Yes, exactly like that. But I, a person who likes nature, and I have always ... wanted to meet my obligations, and the other people should also do [the same].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)


'And we went ... to a farmer, I was, I had to collect this money [ ... ]' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)


### 4 Verb phrase

over to every canton, and these ... had to get it off the ground themselves [ ... ].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

Astge 'be allowed, can' (179) and schè/scha40 (180) 'let, allow' expresses permission.

(179) nus gju quèla gròndjus'idéa scha and have.PRS.1PL 1SG have.PTCP.UNM DEM.F.SG great.F.SG idea if nus ástgian cuschiná. 1PL be allowed.PRS.SBJV.1PL cook.INF '[…] and then we had that great idea [to ask] whether we were allowed

to cook.' (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

(180) autar òn schajs vus era ir' ad alp mè. INDEF.M.SG other year let.PRS.2PL 2PL also go.INF to alp 1SG 'Another year you will also let me go to alp.' (Gadola 1935: 85)

Astge is used in polite requests, as in (181).

(181) ju aun dá in glas aua be\_allowed.PRS.1sG 1sG in\_addition give.INF INDEF.M.SG cup water 'May I give [you] another glass of water […] ?' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

Ability is expressed by pudaj 'can, be able' and savaj'can'. Pudaj refers to nonlearned participant-internal ability (182-184) or to permission (185).


<sup>10</sup> Schá is the Standard Sursilvan form.

4.1 The verb

la saiv vèva ina, INDEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG fence COP.IMPF.3SG.EXPL have.IMPF.3SG rùt palé, quaj vèva in pudju break.pTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG post DEM.UNM have.IMPF.3SG can.PTCP.UNM atrás [ ... ]. through 'And and a pig ... eh ... had been able to escape in Valtgeva through the fence, that was a, the fence was, had a broken post, so it had been able to go through [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11) dad (184) Ju cala a scùlèta, ju pūs 1sG stop.PRS.1sG COMP go.INF to nursery school.F.SG 1sG can.PRS.1sG bitg' í plé. NEG go.INF any\_more 'I'll stop going to nursery school, I can't stand it any longer.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3) (185) Api, quaj èra in pòst da ... quajnassé and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM.in\_up INDEF.M.SG guard of survigilònza, bétga schanza dé vigilance.F.SG NEG chance.F.SG ATTR can.INF through DEM.M.SG day òni bigja schau í nus atrás. have.PRS.3PL.3PL NEG let.PTCP.UNM go.INF 1PL through 'And there was ... up there a vigilance guard, no way to go through, that day they didn't let us go through [that sentry].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

Savaj refers to participant-external (186–189) or learned participant-internal ability (190 and 191).

(186) Pi ò ò èla dét[g]: «Té savèssas í and have.prs.3sG 3sG say.PTCP.UNM 2sG can.cond.2sG go.INF tat ain Pardatsch.» cul with.DEF.M.SG grandfather up PN 'Then she said: «You could go up to Pardatsch with your grandfather.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 4 Verb phrase


'[ ... ] this is to say out of the rock they made a small ... path through which one could easily go eh on foot.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(189) Api sjantar sùnd ju sasjus gjù, api vau and after be.PRS.1sG sit.PTCP.M.SG down and have.PRS.1sG.1sG gè ábar ah, api sau bigj' ajfach í tartgau think.PTCP.UNM yes but eh and can.PRS.1SG.1SG NEG simply go.INF ál' aua. into.DEF.F.SG water

'And then I sat down and thought yes, but, eh, after all I should, I cannot simply jump into the water.' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

bé. l' (190) Quaj antschata cu crajs ju DEM.UNM believe.PRS.2SG.GNR NEG DEF.F.SG beginning when 1sG èri, a surpríu quaj, have.prs.1sg take on.pTCP.UNM DEM.UNM EXIST.IMPF.3sG.EXPL tgé ... mataj11 tg³ èri da quèls ina EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL of DEM.M.PL REL probably COMP INDEF.F.SG fèmna sapi fá da quaj. woman can.prs.sbjv.3sg do.INF of DEM.UNM

'This you don't believe, at the beginning when I took on this job, there were, there were some men who ... [would say] that a woman is not able to do that.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

<sup>11</sup> Mataj means 'probably'; in this context, it is used ironically in the sense of 'impossibly'.

4.1 The verb

(191) *Lu* then *dumandavan* ask.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *èl,* 3sg.m *vevan* have.impf.3sg *dumandau* ask.ptcp.unm *núa* where *èl* 3sg.m *ségi* be.prs.sbjv.3sg *stauṣ* cop.ptcp.m.sg *ajn* in *plaza,* job.f.sg *èra* be.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *staus* cop.ptcp.m.sg *zatgé* something *vid* over *Andermatt–* pn *a* and *tudèstg* German *savèv'* know.impf.1sg *ju* 1sg *è* also *bigja–* neg *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *dumandau* ask.ptcp.unm *in'* one.f *jèda* time *sch'* whether *èl* 3sg.m *sapi,* can.prs.sbjv.3sg *savèva* know.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *lu* then *schòn* indeed *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *tudèstg,* German *savèva* know.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *lu* then *aun,* really *quaj* dem.unm *tg'* rel *èra* cop.impf.3sg *lu* then *bigj'* neg *al* def.m.sg *cas* case *tiar* at *quèls* dem.m.pl *végls* old.pl *aun.* really 'Then we would ask him, we had asked [him] where he had been working, he had been working for a certain time in Andermatt – and [that he knew] German I didn't know either – we had asked him whether he knew, he knew some German indeed, he really knew, which then was not the case with these old people.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

If *savaj* modifies a verb with complements, this verb is sometimes omitted, probably under the influence of Swiss German. In (192), it is the verb *í* 'go' which is omitted.

(192) *[...] da* of *nòs* poss.1pl.m.sg *tjams* time *salagravan* refl.appreciate.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *da* comp *vagní* come.inf *ò* out *da* of *scùla* school.f.sg *par* subord *è* also *savaj* can.inf *a* to *la* def.f.sg *gjuvantétgna.* youth '[...] when we were young we were happy to come out of school in order to also be able [to go] to the association of young people.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

The opposition between *pudaj* and *savaj* is not always clear-cut. In (193), the modal verb refers to participant-external possibility and one would expect *savaj* instead of *pudaj*.

(193) *Cò* here *pùn* can.prs.3sg *ins* gnr *cargè* charge.inf *tschuncònta* fifty *vacas.* cow.f.pl 'Here one can put to graze fifty cows.' (DRG 3: 376)

### 4 Verb phrase

Volition is expressed by *vulaj* 'want' (194 and 195).


*Vut dí* or *vuta dí*, both 'mean' (literally 'wants say'), is best considered a lexicalised expression (196).

(196) *Sas* know.prs.2sg *tgé* what *quaj* dem.unm *vut* want.prs.3sg *dí?* say.inf 'Do you know what this means?' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

Epistemic modality is expressed by *duaj* 'should' (197), *pudaj* 'can' (198), and *pudaj èssar* 'could be' (199) as well as *savaj èssar* 'could be' (200).


fifteen big animals and then also goats [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

<sup>12</sup>*Vul* is Standard Sursilvan for *vutas*.

4.2 Arguments of the verb


'As for mining, it could well be that the rock changed [...].' (Sadrún, m5)

Epistemic modality is also expressed by adverbs like *fòrsa* (§8.5) / *fòrza* (§8.3) 'maybe', *mataj* (§8.11) 'probably', or *sagir* (§8.13) 'certainly'.

### **4.2 Arguments of the verb**

### **4.2.1 Subject**

The subject is not marked morphologically but is defined by its position either before or after the verb according to the verb-second syntax of Tuatschin (and more generally of Sursilvan). Subject inversion in general will be treated in §5.1 about argument order.

Singular subject nouns which have a plural reference, such as *gljut* 'people' trigger the third person plural in the verb. Since this phenomenon is attested in the DRG (about 100 years ago) and in Büchli (1966, at least 50 years ago), it can be assumed that it has already been in the language for a long time (201–204).


'The people who took that way towards Bugnei would hear a voice [...]. Büchli 1966: 142f.)

### 4 Verb phrase

(203) *A* and *bjè* many *gljut* people.f.sg *tumévan* be.afraid.impf.3pl *è* also *mju* poss.1sg.m.sg *tat [...].* grandfather

'And many people were afraid of my grandfather [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(204) *[...] la* def.f.sg *gjuvantétgna* youth *… fòn* do.prs.3pl *parada.* parade.f.sg '[...] the association of young men … holds a parade.' (Zarcúns, m2)

The following phenomenon is also attested in the DRG materials and in Büchli (1966). If there is subject inversion and the subject corresponds to a third person plural, the verb form is in the singular (205–213), even if there is an element between the verb and the inverted subject. An example is (209), where *è* 'also' stands between the verb and the subject.


'[...] the young women would pay close attention to whether they had

4.2 Arguments of the verb

put on the hat the carnation she [they] had given them or not.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

è (209) Ad òz fö gjufnas ... par tga and today do.PRS.3SG also DEF.F.PL young\_woman.PL SUBORD SUBORD ... ségi avùnda. EXIST.PRS.SBJV.3SG enough

'And today the young women also take part ... so that ... there are enough people.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

(210) […] fòrsa scha ju ṣbaglja bitg sè quèlas maybe if 1sG be\_wrong.PRS.1sG NEG COP.PRS.3SG DEM.F.PL trans-pòrtadaș vagnidas figuras lu a mézas figure.PL then PASS.AUX.PTCP.F.PL transport.PTCP.F.PL and put.PTCP.F.PL ajn quèla, ajn quaj sòntgèt. in DEM.F.SG in DEM.M.SG little chapel

'[…] maybe, if I am not wrong, yes, when these figures were transported and put into this little chapel.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

(211) […] quaj è vagnú da ajn, a DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG come.PTCP.UNM COMP concrete.INF in and tanju ò las aun adina. hold.PTCP.UNM have.PRS.3SG 3PL.F still always

'[…] this has been concreted, and they still hold.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(212) A zatgéj mava 'ls aucs lu and something go.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL uncle.PL go.IMPF.3PL then also anzatgé ... ád uáut. something to forest.M.sG

'And sometimes my uncles would also go sometimes ... to the forest.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

tstad (213) and here go.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL boy.PL DEF.F.SG summer to alp.M.SG 'And ... here, during summer, the boys would go to the summer pastures [ ... ].' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

### 4 Verb phrase

### 4.2.2 Direct object

The direct object is not marked morphologically, but is defined by its syntactic position, be it a pronoun or a full noun phrase. With simple tenses, it is located after the verb (214) or after the subject in case of subject inversion (215), as well as after the negator bétga, particles, and adverbs that have been treated in §4.1.3 about particle verbs.

(214) A... vagnéva mèndar a and become.IMPF.3SG worse and worse and induce.IMPF.3PL NEG ál spital [èl] àl, lèva ไ bitg í 3SG.M to.DEF.M.SG to.DEF.M.SG hospital want.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M NEG go.INF né tiar miadis. or to doctor.M.PL

'And ... it became worse and worse and they couldn't induce [him] to go to the, to the hospital he didn't want to go, nor to the doctors.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

 Qu' è adin'aviart lu (215) a sas DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG always open.ADJ.UNM and then can.PRS.2SG í ajn api vèzas [té] [quèlas ah... figuraṣ] ajn grondèzja da go.INF in and see.PRS.2SG 2SG DEM.F.PL ah figure.PL in size.F.SG of carstgaun. human being.M.SG

'This is always open, and then you can step in and then you see these eh ... figures of the size of human beings.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

With compound tenses, the direct object is located after the participle (216) or after the verbal particle if there is one (217), but not after the inverted subject or the negator, since these elements follow the finite verb.


4.2 Arguments of the verb

One ditransitive verb, *dumandá* 'ask, ask for', has two direct objects (218 and 219).<sup>13</sup>


With *dumandá* 'ask', both direct objects may be passivised (220 and 221).


Other cases could be *dá fjuc la lèna* (m10) 'light the firewood', literally 'give fire the firewood', *dá culur las sèndas* 'paint the trails' (f3, §8.1), literally 'give colour the trails', or *dá culur al mir* (m4) 'give colour the wall'.

But in contrast to *dumandá*, only the recipient of *dá* may be passivised, in the sense that it is promoted to subject position and that the past participle agrees with it (222 and 223).

(222) *Al* def.m.sg *mir* wall *è* be.prs.3sg *bigja* neg *vagnús* pass.ptcp.m.sg *daus* give.ptcp.m.sg *culur.* colour.f.sg

'The wall has not been painted.' (Sadrún, m4)

<sup>13</sup>This phenomenon is unusual in Romance languages and is probably due to German influence *(jemanden etwas fragen*, literally 'somebody (accusative) something (accusative) ask').

4 Verb phrase

(223) *La* def.f.sg *lèna* firewood *è* be.prs.3sg *bigja* neg *vagnida* pass.ptcp.f.sg *dada* give.ptcp.f.sg *fjuc.* fire.m.sg 'The firewood has not been lit.' (Sadrún, m5)

However, with a regular ditransitive verb like *dá* 'give' as in (224), the recipient may not be passivised (225).

(224) *Ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *dau* give.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *bi* beautiful.unm *schénghètg* present *da* dat *la* def.f.sg *mùma.* mother 'I gave a beautiful present to my mother.' (Sadrún, m6)

(225) *\*La* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *è* cop.prs.3sg *vegnida* pass.ptcp.f.sg *dada* give.ptcp.f.sg *in* def.m.sg *bi* beautiful.unm *schénghètg.* present 'Mother was given a beautiful present.' (Sadrún, m5)

For these reasons, I conclude that *mir* 'wall' and '*lèna*' 'firewood' in (222 and 223) have to be viewed as direct objects and not as indirect objects.

As for the theme, it cannot be passivised, in the sense that it cannot be promoted to subject position and trigger the agreement of the past participle (226).

(226) *\*Culur* colour.f.sg *è* be.prs.3sg *bigja* neg *\*vagnida* pass.ptcp.f.sg *\*dada* give.ptcp.f.sg *al* def.m.sg *mir.* wall 'Colour has not been given to the wall.' (literally 'Colour has not been given given the wall'). (Sadrún, m6)

Instead, an impersonal passive with the expletive pronoun *i* in subject position as well as the past participle in its unmarked form must be used (227).

(227) *I* expl *è* be..prs.3sg *bigja* neg *vagnú* pass.ptcp.unm *dau* give.ptcp.unm *culur* colour.f *al* def.m.sg *mir.* wall 'Colour has not been given to the wall.' (literally 'It has not been given

colour to the wall'). (Sadrún, m6)

4.2 Arguments of the verb

This holds for *dá fjuc* as well.

Since *culur* and *fjuc* in *dá culur la prajt* and *dá fjuc la lèna*, cannot be passivised, they cannot be considered direct objects of *dá* in these two constructions. Therefore I suggest that they form a unit with *dá* so that *dá culur* and *dá fjuc* are two compound monotransitive verbs with *al mir* and *la lèna* as their direct objects. However, in order to resolve this problem, more research is needed.

Some younger speakers do not accept constructions like *dá culur la prajt* and *dá fjuc la lèna*, but prefer the beneficiary to be marked by dative *da*: *dá fjuc da la lèna*, *dá culur dal mir*, whereas they do accept the construction with *dumandá* 'ask' as in (219).

With mono- or ditransitive verbs, the direct object may be omitted if it has been mentioned before (228–230).

(228) *A* and *què* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *schòn* really *strètg,* narrow.adj.unm *álṣò* well *sch'* if *ju* 1sg *stèṣ* must.cond.1sg *aun* again *fá* do.inf *in'* one.f.sg *jèda* time *quaj,* dem.unm *figès* do.cond.1sg *ju* 1sg *bétga* neg [ ]*.* do

'And this was really narrow, well, if I had to do it once again, I wouldn't do it.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)


'And then we tell it to the municipalities, but we nevertheless send 'a report of damages' as this is called.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

<sup>14</sup>Said in Standard German.

### 4 Verb phrase

The direct object does not have to be immediately adjacent to the verb (231).

(231) *Ju* 1sg *vèv'* have.impf.1sg *als* def.m.pl *véntgatschún* twenty-five *d'* of *avrél* April.m.sg *nataléci* birthday.m.sg *[...].*

'I had my birthday on April 25 [...].' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

### **4.2.3 Indirect object**

As mentioned in §3.2.1.3 and §3.6.1, the nominal and pronominal definite indirect object was introduced by *di/dis* or *li/lis*. Nowadays, the indirect object, whether definite or not, is almost exclusively introduced by *da* (but see (44–48) in §3.2.1.3 about the speech of some older people).

In most cases, the indirect object precedes the direct object (232 and 233), but (234) shows that the inverse also occurs.


4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

*mintga* every *cantún*] canton.m.sg *[...].*

'Then … this has been adopted, and then the confederation handed it over to every canton [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

The usual semantic role of an indirect object is recipient as in the examples above, but with verbs like *plaṣchaj* 'please' or *fá plaṣchaj* 'make pleasure', the semantic role is experiencer as in (235 and 236).


*Da* as a dative marker is also reported for the Surmiran dialect of Marmorera (237 and 238).


### **4.3 Adjuncts of the verb**

### **4.3.1 Locative adjuncts**

Locative adjuncts are realised as adverbs or combinations of adverbs, as noun phrases, or as adpositional phrases. The latter are formed with simple or complex prepositions as well as with circumpositions.

Adverbs are either simple complex. Complex adverbs are combinations of adpositions, combinations of adpositions with adverbs, or multiple adverbs.

### 4 Verb phrase

Simple adverbs include cò 'here', daspèras 'next to it', drétg'right', gljunsch 'far away' (239), lò 'there', nagljú 'nowhere', saniastar 'left'(240), tschò 'here'4', and zanú/zanúa 'somewhere' (242).


'And then ... this was just for a bit, they were walking on the very left side of the road.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)


'And ... and then it happened, ... well when he was about seventy-nine years old, it seems that he also fell down somewhere.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

Combinations of prepositions or of prepositions with adverbs are e.g. ajndadájns 'inside' (< 'in + inside') (243), angjù 'down' (< 'in + down'), ansé 'up' (< `in + up'), daváuntiar 'in front' (< `in front + towards'), òrdavaun `in front' (< 'out + before') (244), sédangjù (< 'up + down'), surangjù ('over + down') (245), and vinavaun 'farther' (< 'over + in front').

<sup>15</sup> Tscho 'here' is usually used together with lò 'there'; see example (241).

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb


'[ ... ] and then ... one would move in front and then the other pigs would follow in single file [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

èssan (245) ใน nuș i sé api vagní surangjù and then be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL up and come.PTCP.M.PL over down ad i gjù Tiefenbach. and go.PTCP.M.PL down PN 'And then we went up and came down [from] over [the avalanche

barriers] and went down to Tiefenbach.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

Two special cases are gjùdém 'at the very bottom' and séssum 'at the very top'; the former is a combination of the prepositions gjù and sé along with the derivational morpheme -dém '(down)most', the latter is a combination of the préposition sé up' with the derivational morpheme -sum (upper)most' (246).

(246) ésch cul ... ròlas and fill.PTCP.UNM up DEF.M.SG door with.DEF.M.SG roll.F.PL of da tualèta pupí paper.M.SG of toilet.F.SG until very\_top '[…] and filled up the doorway with the … rolls of toilet paper until the very top [ ... ].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

Locative adverbs are also formed by combinations of adverbs with either the demonstrative quaj 'this' (247), the comparative plé 'more (than)', or the consecutive schi 'so (that)' (250). With plé the compared element may be explicit (248) or implicit (249).

(247) Api, quaj èra in ... quajnassé post da and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG D DEM.UNM.in\_up INDEF.M.SG guard of survigilònza […]. vigilance.F.sG 'And there was ... up there a vigilance guard [ ... ].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

### 4 Verb phrase


'[…] the legend says that they were so deep in the cave that they heard the clock strike noon in Rueras.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

Some combinations of adverbs include cò angjù 'down here' (251), gjù cò 'down here', and ò lò 'out there' (252).


'Out there I might have started enjoying looking for stones a bit [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

The adverbs *cò* 'here' and *lò* 'there' combine with the prepositions *sé* 'up' and *gjù* 'down'. In the case of *cò* and *sé*, they combine either as *sé cò* (253) or as *cò sé* (254).<sup>16</sup> If one says

(253) *Ju* 1sg *sùn* cop.prs.1sg *sé* up *cò.* here 'I am up here.' (Ruèras, m10)

it implies that speaker and hearer are at the same place. If one says

(254) *Ju* 1sg *sùn* cop.prs.1sg *cò* here *sé.* up 'I am up here.' (Ruèras, m10)

it implies that the speaker is at a higher place than the hearer. This semantic difference does not exist with *lò sé* (255) and *sé lò* (256), both meaning 'up there'. According to several consultants, both constructions refer to the same situation; the more common construction is *sé lò*.

(255) *Nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *da* comp *partgirá* mind.inf *als* def.m.pl *tiars,* animal.pl *als* def.m.pl *buéts,* boy.pl *a* and *stèvan* stay.impf.1pl *lò* there *sé,* up *sé* up *majṣès.* assembly\_of\_houses.m.sg 'We had to mind the animals, we the boys, and stayed up there, at the *majṣès*.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

(256) *Nuṣ* 1pl *stèvan* stay.impf.1pl *sé* up *lò,* there *sé* up *majṣès.* assembly\_of\_houses.m.sg 'We stayed up there, at the *majṣès*.' (Cavòrgja, f5)

In Tuatschin – as well as in other Romansh varieties – adpositions heading place names or names of important buildings like churches or schools take on a special meaning and will be treated below in this section (see Table 4.28– Table 4.33).

The following simple prepositions occur in the corpus: **a** 'in, to' (257), *ajn* 'in, into', *ajnt/ajnta* 'in, into' (258), *amiaz* 'in the middle of', *ancùntar* 'towards', *antù̱rn* 'around' (259), *avaun* 'before' (260), *da* 'from' (261), *dadajns* 'inside', *dadò*

<sup>16</sup>The syntactic status of *sé* in the combination *cò sé* is not clear to me, because it looks like a postposition. However, no other pospositions are attested in the domain of locatives, and in other domains they are very scarce.

### 4 Verb phrase

'outside', *davùs* 'behind', *gjù* 'down', *nùca* 'by, next to' (262 and 263), *ò/òra* 'out', *sé* 'up', *sén* 'on', *séssum* 'on top of', *spèr* 'next to', *ṣur/ṣu* 'above', *ṣut* 'under', *tòca/tòcan* 'until', *viars* 'towards'.


'And at night the cat came into [his] bed […].' (Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 121)


(262) *[...] prandévan* take.impf.1pl *nòssa* poss.1pl.f.sg *… sarvjèta,* napkin *matévan* put.impf.1pl *sé* up *nùca* where *la* def.f.sg *sòr'* nun *Andréa,* pn *a* and *lu* then *stgèvan* be\_allowed.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *raṣdá* speak.inf *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.m.sg

'[...] [we] would take our … napkin, would put it next to Sister Andrea, and then we were allowed to speak Romansh.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

(263) *[...] api* and *vèvanṣ* have.impf.1pl.1pl *da* comp *partgirá* mind.inf *als* def.m.pl *tiars,* animal.pl *mav'* go.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *lò* there *sédòr* up\_out *ál* in.def.m.sg *sit,* south *grat* just *cò* there *nùca* by *quèla* dem.f.sg *rùsna* hole *tgu* rel.1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *raquintau.* tell.ptcp.unm '[...] and we also had to mind the animals; we would then go up to the south, just by that cave I have told about.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

If the referent is known or can be inferred by the hearer, noun phrases introduced by a preposition preclude the use of determiners, as in the phrases *ajn cuṣchina, nuégl, tgòmbra* 'in the kitchen, barn, bedroom', *ajnta létg* 'in bed', or *avaun tgèsa* 'in front of the house'.

But if a noun introduced by a preposition refers to an entity that is not known to the hearer, the noun must be modified by the indefinite article (264).

(264) *Èl* 3sg.m *è* be.prs.3sg *curdauṣ* fall.ptcp.m.sg *gjùdajn* down\_into *ajn* in *ina* indef.f.sg *rùsna.* hole '[...] he fell in an hole [...].' (Sadrún, m4)

The noun may be modified by a demonstrative determiner in anaphoric function (265).

(265) *Ajn* in *quèla* dem.f.sg *caplùta* chapel *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *ajn* in *ina,* indef.f.sg *la* def.f.sg *quarta* fourth *stazjun* station *da* of *la* def.f.sg *via* way *da* of *la* def.f.sg *crusch.* cross 'In this chapel there is a, the fourth station of Christ's way of the Cross.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

If the noun phrase is modified by an adjective, the definite article must occur, as in the phrase *ajn la tgèsa véglja* 'in the old house' (Büchli 1966: 30. Note that usually the preposition *ajn* and the definite article are fused: *ajn al* → *ajl/ál*, *ajn la* → *ajla/ála*.

Some additional examples of bare nouns in prepositional phrases include *ajn caplùta* 'in the chapel' (Büchli 1966: 45, *ajn caplùta da Sòntgaclau* 'in the chapel of St. Nicholas' (Büchli 1966: 45), *ajn stiva* 'in the living room' (§8.17), *ajn stizún* 'in the shop' ((Büchli 1966: 123), *ajn tégja* 'in the alpine hut' Büchli 1966: 122), *avaun tégja* 'in front of the alpine hut' (§8.17).

### 4 Verb phrase

Simple prepositions cannot stand alone, i.e. they cannot function as adverbs. In order to do so, they need a derivational morpheme, which is an- in case of gjù 'down' (266) and sé 'up'; and vid- with ajn 'in(to)' (267) and ò/òr/òra 'out' (268). Another possibility to convert sé into an adverb is to use òra as in sédòra 'up' (269).1/ The adverbial equivalent of spèr 'next to' is daspèras (270).


'And this cave – [judging from] where I have been in it – one can go into it about 25 metres, and then it splits in two.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(268) brișchi sèra par tga bétg ... and DEF.F.SG evening for SUBORD burn.PRS.SBJV.3SG NEG mava ์ไ vagnéva quaj, quaj ajnagjù PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM DEM.UNM go.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M in\_down a maun èra sènza ... [vòns] cul vidò with.DEF.M.SG hand also without [ [glove.M.PL] and pull.IMPF.3SG out còtgla giù sé sél plantschju. charcoal.coll down up on.DEF.M.SG floor

'And in the evening, to avoid it burning ... was that, there he went into [the fire] with one hand, also without [gloves], and pulled out charcoal from down there up to the floor.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

<sup>17</sup> Note that in sédòra, òra does not mean 'out of the valley', see Table 4.32.

<sup>18</sup> Standard Sursilvan for sò ins dí.

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb


However, sé and gjù may stand alone in sé a gjù 'up and down' (271), which parallels German auf und ab.20

(271) A nus mavan culs pòrs sé Valtgèva, mintga dé and 1PL go.IMPF.1PL with.DEF.M.PL pig.PL up PN every day.M.SG sé a gjù […]. up and down 'And we would go up to Valtgeva with the pigs, every day up and down [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

The preposition ancùntar 'towards' constitutes a special case in the sense that it triggers dative with human nouns (272 and 273) but not with inanimate nouns (274 and 275).

(272) Cò vagnú ina fèmna ancùntar here be.PRS.3SG come.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG woman towards li quaj pur DEF.DAT.SG DEM.M.SG farmer 'At this moment a woman came towards this farmer […].' (Ruèras,

Büchli 1966: 64)

<sup>19</sup> Bétònaj is a performance error for bétònádas.

<sup>20</sup> In German, the prepositions auf and ab cannot stand alone in the meaning intend here; they must be combined with e.g. hin-. Ich gehe \*auf in the sense of 'I am going up' is not grammatical; one must say Ich gehe hinauf, as in Tuatschin Ju mòn \*sé vs Ju mòn ansé.

### 4 Verb phrase


'And precisely at that moment … a huge avalanche … came down from the Londadusa valley, down towards the village [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5)

This is the only case where animacy (human vs inanimate) plays a role in Tuatschin.

*Via* instead of *vi* 'over' is rejected by some informants; it occurs, however, in Büchli (1966) as well as in the oral corpus.

(276) *A* and *lu* then *ségi* be.prs.sbjv.3sg *la* def.f.sg *cúa* tail *ida* go.ptcp.f.sg *via* over *da* from *Sòntg* holy.m.sg *Antòni* pn *gjù* down *a* and *vagi* have.prs.sbjv.3sg *suatju* catch\_up.ptcp.unm *als* def.m.pl *zagríndars* Yenish.pl *ò* out *ṣùt* under *Bugnaj.* pn

'And then the tail went down by [the chapel of] Saint Anthony and caught up the Yenish beneath Bugnei.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

(277) *I* expl *èr'* exist.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *artg* rainbow *ṣul* on.def.m.sg *Rajn* pn *via.* over 'There was a rainbow over the Rhine.' (Tschamùt, Büchli 1966: 15) 4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

	- '[...] and then my father looks over to me:' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

Complex prepositions include *damanajval da* 'near'(279), *navèn da* 'from' (280), *ò da/òrd* 'out of' (280 and 282), *òn* (< *òra ajn* 'out (in)to') (281), and *vi da* '(over) to' (283).

(279) *Immis,* pn *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *gjù,* down *gjù* down *tschò* there *damanajval* near *da* of *… Interlaken.* pn

'Immis, that is down, down there, near … Interlaken.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(280) *Tùts* all.m.pl *… ò* out *da* of *scùla* school.f.sg *a* to *fumégl* farmhand.m.sg *… a* and *sjantar* after *ad* to *alp* alp.f.sg *a* and *navèn* away *dad* from *alp* alp *vagnévas* come.impf.2sg.gnr *pér* only *al* def.m.sg *davùs* last *mumèn* moment *a* and *mavaṣ* go.impf.2sg.gnr *a* to *scùla.* school.f.sg

'All ... out of school to farmhand ... and after this to the alpine pasture and you would only come away from the pasture at the last moment and then you would go to school.' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)


'At four o'clock out of bed to go and gather the cows in the cowshed [...].' (Ruèras, m3, §8.16)

### 4 Verb phrase

(283) *Surajn* pn *è* cop.prs.3sg *vi* over *da* of *tschèla* dem.f.sg *vart* side *dal* of.def.m.sg *Rajn.* pn 'Surrein is on the other side of the Rhine.' (Camischùlas, f6)

The derived adverbs with *-dém* (284 and 285) or *-sum* (286 and 287) are also used as prepositions.

(284) *Quaj* dem.unm *èra* be.impf.3sg *ju* go.ptcp.unm *gjù* down *ina* indef.f.sg *grònda* big *lavina* avalanche *… a* and *vèva* have.impf.3sg *… déstruí* destroy.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *grònda* huge *part* part *dl* of.def.m.sg *vitg* village *ajntadém* uppermost *Ruèras* pn *[...].*

'Then a huge avalanche went down … and … destroyed a big part of the village in the upper part of Rueras [...].' (Camischùlas, m6, §8.5)

(285) *A* and *lu* then *ṣchajnṣ* say.prs.1pl.1pl *adina* always *al* def.m.sg *... sòntgèt* little\_chapel *òdém* out\_most *al* def.m.sg *vitg.* village 'And then we always say the ... little chapel at the lowest part of the


Circumpositions are e.g. *da N ajn* 'through N into' (288), *da N ajnasé* 'through N up' (289),*da N òra* 'from N out' (290), *da N sé* 'from N up', *da N sédòra* 'from

village.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

N up' (291), 'through N out', *par N antùrn* 'around N', *spèr N vi* 'next to N over' (292), *ṣùt N ajn* 'under N in(to)', and *ṣùt N gjù* 'under N down'.

In circumpositions, the preposed element *da* often refers to source ('from') (290) or to path ('through') (288).

	- in barn

'[…] and [the hay] came into the barn through the door and the cracks.' (Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 121)


'Before, from Realp we went on a footpath [that led us] above the avalanche barriers [...].' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

(292) *Cu* when *'l* 3sg.m *è* be.prs.3sg *vagnúṣ* come.ptcp.m.sg *a* to *tgèsa* house.f *la* def.f.sg *sèra* afternoon *spèr* next\_to *ina* indef.f.sg *gronda* big *prajt-crap* rock\_face *vi,* over *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m

### 4 Verb phrase

*schau* let.ptcp.unm *dá* give.inf *la* def.f.sg *sagir* saw *ṣu* under *la* def.f.sg *prajt-crap* rock\_face *gjù […].* down 'When in the evening he came back home, passing a huge rock face, he let the saw fall down under the rock face […].' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 135)

One consultant uses the verb *í* 'go' without a preposition in the case of *majṣès* (293 and 294). The others use either *a* 'to' or *sé* 'up' in such cases (295).


In Tuatschin – as well as in other Romansh varieties – locative adjuncts referring to place names, and and other places are very important.<sup>21</sup> When speakers are located in the Tujetsch valley, they must indicate whether they go down the valley (*ò* 'out'), up the valley (*ajnta* 'into'), outside the valley (*ò* 'out' or *gjù* 'down'), or over to a place (*vi*), usually seen from the speech act place. If sthey

<sup>21</sup>See (Ebneter 1994: 4–126) for Standard Sursilvan and other Romansh varieties.

### 4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

are outside the valley and go into the valley, they must decide whether they use *sé* ('up') or *ajn* ('into').<sup>22</sup>

Table 4.28 shows the prepositions used when the speaker is located or moves within the Lower Valley (which starts in Bugnei and ends in Dieni), and Table 4.29 presents the prepositions used when going to the other side of the Rhine or to the Medel Valley.


Table 4.28: Locatives I

Table 4.29: Locatives II


With *Cavòrgja*, the preposition *gjùn* is used, a combination of *gjù* 'down' and *ajn* 'in(to)', because *cavòrgja* means 'canyon', hence 'down' and 'into'. Accordingly, *vin*, a combination of *vi* 'over' and *ajn* 'in(to)', is used with *Val Mejdal*, because *Val Méjdal* is a valley, and in order to go there, one has to cross a pass, hence *vi*, and go into the valley, hence *ajn*.

Table 4.30 shows the prepositions used when going to or coming from the Upper Valley and the bordering canton of Uri with two villages with Romansh names, namely *Ursèra* (*Andermatt* in German) and *Caṣchinùta* (*Göschenen* in German).

Table 4.31 shows the prepositions used inside the Upper Valley and going from the Upper Valley into the Lower valley.

<sup>22</sup>The exact location of the place names mentioned in this section can be seen in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3, §1.3.

### 4 Verb phrase


Table 4.30: Locatives III



Table 4.32 shows the prepositions used when going from Sedrun outside the Tujetsch valley or when going from outside into the valley to Sedrun. The first village outside the Tujetsch valley is Mompé Tujetsch, and the last considered here is Trun, which is still located in the Surselva. The villages until Mustér are treated as if they still belonged to the Tujetsch valley (296).


Yenish.pl

'Then the people of Sedrun passed Cavorgia and were in Mustér before the Yenish.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

The combinations of *cò* 'here' with *òra* and *ajn* (realised as *quòra* and *quajn*, respectively) have both two meanings: either 'here (down or up the valley)' or 'outside (in direction down or up the valley)' (297–299).


Table 4.32: locatives V

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb


The villages and cities from Trun downwards are all modified by the preposition *gjù* if they are relevant to the speakers, as are Chur or Zürich (300). If they are not relevant to them, the preposition *a* 'to, in' is used instead.

(300) *Ju* 1sg *vòn* go.prs.1sg *gjù* down *Turitg. 23* pn 'I am going (down) to Zurich.' (Cavòrgja, f1)

Regarding the lateral valleys of the Tujetsch valley, most speakers use *ajn* 'in(to)' (301), but some use *sé* 'up' (302).


When coming from the lateral valleys, *ajnagjù* or *òragjù* is used (303).

<sup>23</sup>The pan-Romansh form *Turitg*, written *Turich* in the Ladin varieties, derives either from its Swiss German form *Züri* or, more probably, from its Latin form *Turicum*.

### 4 Verb phrase

(303) *[...] in* one.m *… tga* rel *stèva* live.impf.3sg *ajnasé* in\_and\_up *Gjuf* pn *ábar* but *vaj* have.sbjv.prs.3sg *gju* have.ptcp.unm *da* to *vagní* come.inf *navèn* from *da* of *Gjuf* pn *tòcan* until *òragjù* out\_down *… Zarcúns* pn *[...].* '[...] one … that lived up in Gjuf, but who had to come down from Gjuf to … Zarcuns [...].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

*Dadajns* and *dadò̱*in combination with a place name or another reference point (e.g. a church, a school, or a bridge) mean that the subject of the sentence is located outside the place or away from the reference point, in the direction up or down the valley (304–309).


'[...] Nacla, this is … farther behind … Surrein, maybe twenty minutes farther behind.' (Sadrún, m4, l§8.3)

(308) [*m3*] *Sas* know.prs.2sg *tgé* what *quaj* dem.unm *vut* want.prs.3sg *dí?* say.inf *Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *ljung,* long.adj.unm *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *sé* up *Miléz,* pn *Ṣcharinas.* pn

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

[*f4*] *Sé* up *Miléz,* pn *dadajns* in *Miléz* pn *... .*

'[m3] Do you know what this means? This is a long way, this is up at Milez, Scharinas. [f4] Up at Milez, to the west of Milez ... .' (Ruèras, m3 and f4, l§8.16)

(309) *Lu* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *vju* see.ptcp.unm *òragjù* out\_down *dadòr* outside *Camischùlas* pn *sén* on *in* indef.m.sg *prau* field *ina* indef.f.sg *familja* family *tga* rel *sùlvèva.* have\_breakfast.impf.3sg 'Then he saw down there, outside Camischolas [in the direction down the valley], a family that was having breakfast in a field.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 139)

As mentioned, the reference point does not have to be a village or a town; in (310) it is the bridge over the Drun river. In order to explain to me the meaning of *dadajns*, my consultant told me when we were in the Krüzli hotel:

(310) *Nuṣ duṣ èssan dadajns la pùn.*

1pl two.m cop.prs.1pl from\_in def.f.sg bridge

'The two of us are away from the bridge [in the direction up the valley].' (Sadrún, m5)

Table 4.33 shows the prepositions that are used with the neighbouring countries (Italy, Germany, Austria, France) or regions (Bavaria).


Table 4.33: Locatives VI

The adverbs follow the same rules as the prepositional phrases. In (311) the speech act participants are in Sedrun, and *vidòr* 'down the valley' is used because the hearer will go to Naclas (referred to as *ajn lò* 'up there') and the speaker wants the hearer to come back to Sedrun.

### 4 Verb phrase

(311) *Té* 2sg *nò* come.imp.2sg *lu* then *vidòr* down *ùssa.* now *Lò,* there *quèsta* dem.f.sg *sèra* evening *dòrma* sleep.imp.2sg *lu* then *bigja* neg *ajn* in *lò.* there 'Come down here now. Don't sleep up there this evening.' (Ruèras, m4, §8.3)

Sometimes the combination of locative adverbs does not refer to the direction up or down the valley. This is the case with *sédòra* in (312).

(312) *A* and *sjantar* after *c'* subord *ins* gnr *mava,* go.impf.3sg *sch'* then *mav'* go.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *sél* on.def.m.sg *Albṣu* pn *cul* with.def.m.sg *trèn,* train *a* and *quaj* dem.unm *custav'* cost.impf.3sg *in* one.m.sg *franc* franc *dad* subord *í* go.inf *sédòra.* up\_out

'And after this, if one went, one would go up to the Alpsu [pass] by train and this cost one franc to go up there.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

In this example *sé* means 'up'; however, *òra* does not mean 'down the valley' but 'outside'. As a matter of fact, *òra* refers to the fact that the Alpsu pass is not a village where one could be inside, but an open space. The opposite of *sédòra* in such a context is *sédajn* 'up and into', as in (313).

(313) *Èls* 3pl.m *ajn* be.prs.3pl *i* go.ptcp.unm *sédajn* up\_into *ajn* into *tgèsa.* house.f.sg 'They went up into the house.' (Sadrún, m5)

### **4.3.2 Temporal adjuncts**

Temporal adjuncts consist of adverbs, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and – exceptionally – of postpositional phrases. In this section are also included adjuncts that quantify the situation a verb refers to, like 'every day', 'many times', or 'often'.

The calendar is divided in the following way: *tschantanè* 'century', *òn* 'year', *majns* 'month', *jamna* 'week', and *dé* 'day'.

The names of the months, which are all masculine, are *ṣchanè*, *favrè*, *mars*, *avrél/avrèl*, *matg*, *zarcladur*, *fanadur*<sup>24</sup> , *uést* (2 syllables), *satjámbar*, *òctòbar ̱* , *nòvè̱mbar*, and *dècè̱mbar*.

<sup>24</sup>*Zarcladur* and *fanadur* are the only old names of the months that still are in use; they are derived from the verbs *zarclá* 'weed' and *faná* 'hay'.

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

The names of the days are *gljéndiṣdís* (m), *mardís* (m), *maṣjamna* (f), *géjvja* (f), *vèndardís* (m), *sònda* (f), and *dumèngja* (f).

The day is divided as follows: *damaun* (f) 'morning', *avaunmjadṣ-dé* (m) 'morning' (literally 'before noon'), *mjadṣ-dé* (m) 'noon', *sjantarmjadṣdé* (m) 'afternoon', *sèra* (f) 'afternoon, evening', *nòtg* (f) 'night', and *mjasanòtg* (f) 'midnight'.

Note that *bian dé*, literally 'good day', is used as a greeting until approximately twelve o'clock; after this, *buna sèra* is used. *Buna nòtg* 'good night' is used when taking leave.

When reference is being made to the day of speech, the parts of the day are expressed as follows: *òz andamaun* 'this morning', *òz sjantarmjadṣ-dé* 'this afternoon', *quèsta sèra* 'this afternoon, this evening', *quèsta nòtg* 'tonight'.

Time adverbs include *adina* 'always', *avaun* 'before', *baud* 'early', *daditg* 'a long time ago', *damaun* 'tomorrow', *dantaun* 'meanwhile', *ditg* 'long, a long time', *djantarájn* 'in between', *ér* 'yesterday', *grad* 'just', *magari* 'sometimes' (314), *maj* 'never', *mintgataun* 'sometimes' (315), *òn* 'last year', *òrdavaun* 'in advance', *òz* 'today', *òzaldé* 'nowadays', *savèns* 'often', *stjarsas* 'the day before yesterday', *puschmaun* or *surdamaun* 'the day after tomorrow', *tard* 'late', *uòn* 'this year', *ùs/ùssa* 'now', *vònzaj* 'later' (316), *zacú/zacuras* 'someday'.

(314) *Álṣò* well *ins* gnr *mava* go.impf.3sg *par* for *èxè̱mpal* example.m.sg *è* also *magari* sometimes *gjù* down *Lucèrn,* pn *prquaj ̩* because *tga* subord *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *gjù* down *Lucèrn* pn *còlègs* colleague.m.pl *tga* rel *stèvan* stay.impf.3pl *gjù* down *lò.* there

'Well, we would also go for instance to Lucerne because in Lucerne we had friends who lived down there.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

(315) *Mintgataun* sometimes *mavan* go.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *èra* also *… plas* around.def.f.pl *pitgògnas* steep\_slope.pl *a* subord *cavá* dig.inf *cristalas* crystal.f.pl *anstagl* instead *mirá* look\_for.inf *dlas* of.def.f.pl *tgauras,* goat.pl *pi* and *vignévan* come.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *halt* simply *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *tart.* late

'From time to time we would also … go farther up to extract crystals instead of looking after the goats, and then we would come back a bit late.' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

4 Verb phrase

(316) Api vònzaj vau tartgau, ah ju a and later have.PRS.1SG.1SG think.PTCP.UNM eh 1sG have.PRS.1sG in' idéa […]. INDEF.F.SG idea 'And after a while I thought, eh, I have an idea [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

Time prepositions, simple or compound, include ancuntar 'towards' (317), avaun/avaun ca 'before, ago' (321), da 'at, during' (318), durònt 'during', sjantar 'after' (319), and tòca/tòcan 'until' (320).


'And I still remember this, and then ... after a couple of days ... we were able to cope with these pigs [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

	- '[…] and we had school until April.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

Avaun ca is very rare and only occurs in Büchli (1966) (321).

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

(321) *[...] lu* then *ṣèn* be.prs.3pl *quèls* dem.m.pl *da* of *Sadrún* pn *[...] staj* cop.ptcp.m.pl *ò* out *Mustajr* pn *avaun* before *ca* subord *'ls* def.m.pl *zagríndars.* Yenish '[...] then those from Sedrun [...] were in Mustér before the Yenish.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

Postpositional phrases are very rare in the domain of temporal adjuncts. In the corpus, there are only two items: *avaun* 'before' and *òra* 'out'. They are used in very restricted contexts, such as *al dé avaun* 'the day before' (§8.16) or *al dé òra* 'the whole day' (§8.3, literally 'the day out'). Note that the construction with *avaun*, in contrast to the one with *òra*, could be considered elliptic for *al dé avaun quaj schabètg* 'the day before that event'. According to this hypothesis, *avaun* is a preposition rather than a postposition.

Noun phrases functioning as temporal adjuncts can contain a determiner or not. The definite article, singular or plural, is used when the noun phrase refers to a month, a week, or to a day of the week if the time span does not include the moment of speech (322–324).

(322) *La* def.f.sg *scùla* school *finéva* end.impf.3sg *… al* def.m.sg *matg* May *… zarcladur* June.m.sg *[...].* 'School ended in May ... June [...].' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

(323) *[...] tgi* who *ca* rel *vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *traplaus* catch.ptcp.m.sg *stuèva* must.impf.3sg *al* def.m.sg *vèndardís* Friday *sèra* evening *… stá* stay.inf *lò,* there *stgèvan* be\_allowed.impf.3pl *bigj'* neg *í* go.inf *a* to *tgèsa,* home.f.sg *api* and *stèvan* stay.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *ṣchùbargè* clean.inf *in'* one.f *ura* hour *zatgéj,* something *durmí* sleep.inf *lò,* there *api* and *stèvan* must.impf.3pl *lu* then *í* go.inf *pèr* only *la* def.f.sg *sònda* Saturday *andamaun* in\_morning *a* to *tgèsa.* home.f.sg

'[...] the person who got caught had to … remain there on Friday evening, they were not allowed to go home, and then they had to clean for more or less one hour, sleep there, and then could only go home on Saturday morning.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

### 4 Verb phrase

(324) *Ajn* in *quèla* dem.f.sg *végljadé̱tgna,* age *api* and *al* def.m.sg *pròblèm* problem *èra,* cop.impf.3sg *èra,* cop.impf.3sg *al* def.m.sg *pròblèm* problem *èra* cop.impf.3sg *las* def.f.pl *sòndas* Saturday.pl *a* and *dumèngjas.* Sunday.pl

'At that age, and the problem was, was, the problem was on Saturdays and Sundays.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

Further examples include *l'jamna vargjèda* 'last week', *al majns vargjau* 'last month', *als davùs òns* 'during the last years' (§8.1) , *al davùs mumèn* 'at the last moment' (§8.16), *la duméngja, sjantar vjaspras* 'Sunday after vespers' (§8.2), *la duméngja sjantarmjadṣ-dé* 'Sunday afternoon' (§8.2), *gl antiar sjantarmjadṣ-dé* 'the whole afternoon' (§8.2).

If the moment of speech is included in the time reference, the demonstrative determiner of the *quèst*-series is used (see §3.2.2.3) (325), except for 'today', which is rendered by *òz*.

(325) *Ùsa* now *quèst'* dem.f.sg *jamna* week *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *gròndas* big.f.pl *turas* tour.pl *… da* of *… da* of *sis* six *sjat* seven *uras* hour.f.pl *[...].* 'Now this week I did long tours … of … of six seven hours [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

The full hours of day are referred to by a noun phrase with (326) or without (327) the preposition *da*. The half hours are indicated without the article (326), and the quarter hours with the indefinite article, as in *in quart avaun las trajs* 'a quarter to three' and *in quart vargjau las trajs* 'a quarter past three'.


4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

Further temporal adjuncts with determiners that are not articles are *antiar dé* 'the whole day' (328), *bjè jèdas* 'many times' (329), *da quaj tjams* 'at that time' (§8.15), *mintga dé* 'every day' (§8.1), and *ana sjatònta* 'in 1970' (§8.2).

(328) *Prquaj ̩* because *tga* subord *quaj* dem.unm *c'* when *inṣ* gnr *vèva* have.impf.3sg *bigja* neg *grad* just *da* to *partgirá* mind.inf *tiars* animal.m.pl *sch'* then *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *inṣ* gnr *antiar* whole.m.sg *dé* day *cun* with *quèls* dem.m.pl *[...].*

'Because when we didn't just have to mind the animals, we were with them [the Italian workers] the whole day [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(329) *[...] ábar* but *inṣ* gnr *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… gè,* yes *bjè* many *jèdas* time.f.pl *trésts* sad.m.pl *[...]* '[...] but we were ... yes, many times sad [...].' (Ruèras, f4,§8.16)

When referring to the days of the week, bare noun phrases are used (330).

(330) *Nus* 1pl *savasajn* refl.see.prs.1pl *gjéjvja* Thursday *né* or *dumèngja.* Sunday 'We'll see each other on Thursday or Sunday.' (Sadrún, m5)

This is also the case when referring to years, where the dedicated nouns *ana* (before consonant) or *ana d'* (before vowel) (331) and *ánò* are used (332). The regular noun for 'year' is *òn*.


'[...] then there are … some small benches, yes, interesting, yes, and also built a clock tower in 1928 I think, yes.' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

### 4 Verb phrase

### **4.3.3 Manner adjuncts**

Manner adjuncts are realised as adverbs (including adverbs derived from adjectives by the suffix -*majn*), adjectives, and prepositional phrases.

Adverbs include *bégn* 'well',<sup>25</sup> *mal* 'badly' (333), *nuídis* 'reluctantly' (334), *plaunsjú*<sup>26</sup> 'slowly', *quèluisa̱* 'in such a way', *tschèluisa̱* 'in that way' (335), *ugèn* 'gladly', *usché/uschéja* 'so', and *zacù̱*'somehow' (336).


week.f.pl

'This happened in such a way that when we returned down [to Surrein] from Pardatsch, then we had stayed there maybe … four or five weeks.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(336) *Ábar* but *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *clar* clear.adj.unm *… òzaldé* nowadays *végni* pass.aux.prs.3sg.expl *zacù̱* somehow *è* also *...* ... *purṣchju* offer.ptcp.unm *daplé.* more 'But this is clear ... there are somehow also many more possibilities

nowadays.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

<sup>25</sup>In contrast to Standard Sursilvan, Tuatschin distinguishes between *bégn* 'well' and *bèn* '(negative) yes', which both are realised as *bein* in Standard Sursilvan. Tuatschin *bégn* corresponds e.g. to German *doch* or to French *si*

<sup>26</sup>Forms like *plaunmjú* or *plauntjú*, which refer to first and second person singular, respectively, are not used in Tuatschin. *Plaunsjú* is used for all persons.

4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

These adverbs can be modified by other adverbs or by adjectives used adverbially, as is the case of *faruct* 'crazy' in (337).

(337) *Ábar* but *… ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *faruct* crazy.adj.unm *ugèn* gladly *quaj.* dem.unm 'But … I really loved to do that.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

The comparative of *bégn* 'well' is either *plé bégn* (338) or *mégljar*, and the comparative of *mal* 'badly' is *mèndar* (339).


Derived adverbs with the suffix -*majn* functioning as manner adverbs are relatively rare (340 and 341).

Adjectives are usually derived from their feminine form, as for example in *bian*, *buna* 'good' → *bunamajn* 'almost', but adjectives ending in *-al* or *-ar* are derived from their masculine form (see Spescha (1989: 494), as in *natural* 'natural' → *naturálmajn* 'naturally, of course'.

(340) *Daváuntiar* in\_front *ṣaj* cop.prs.3sg *sé* up *la,* def.f.sg *l'* def.f.sg *anada* year *cur'* when *i* 3pl *òn* have.prs.3pl *antschiat,* begin.ptcp.unm *ad* and *inṣ* gnr *vèz'* see.prs.3sg *aun,* still *quaj* dem.unm *bagagjávani* build.impf.3pl.3pl *gjù* down *... cun* with *ah,* eh *bjè* much *manuálmajn.* manual.adv 'In front of it there is, eh, the year when they started, one can still see,

they used to mine this with, ah, a lot manually.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(341) *Gè,* yes *sch'* if *ju* 1sg *mir'* look.prs.1sg *anavùs* back *… quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *fòrsa* maybe *sjat,* seven *ògj* eight *òns* year.m.pl *… schòn* really *mù* only *gljèz* dem.unm *… savèv'* can.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *í* go.inf *patschíficamajn.* peaceful.f.sg.adv

'Yes, if I look back ... that was maybe seven, eight years [ago] ... only that ... one could go peacefully.' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

### 4 Verb phrase

Most of the adverbs that are derived from adjectives function as modal adverbs, which express the attitude of the speaker towards the propositional content of the sentence. Some examples are *atgnamajn* 'actually', *bunamajn* 'almost', *naturálmajn* 'naturally', *vájramajn* 'really', and *símplamajn* 'simply'.

The scarcity of derived adverbs is due to the fact that Tuatschin very often uses an adjective in an adverbial function (see §3.3.4). An example of an adjective functioning as a modal adverb is *pulit* instead of *pulítamajn* in (342).

(342) *[...] a* and *lu* then *… sjantar* after *in* indef.m.sg *pèr* couple *dis* day.m.pl *… vajn* have.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *savju* can.ptcp.unm *dumigná* cope.inf *quèls* dem.m.pl *pòrs* pig.pl *… tga* rel *mavan* go.impf.3pl *pulit* proper.adj.unm *[...].* '[...] and then … after a couple of days … we were able to cope with these pigs … which would move properly [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

Prepositional phrases functioning as manner adjuncts are rare; an example is (343).

(343) *Alṣ* def.m.sg *ùmans* man.pl *mavan* go.impf.3pl *cul* with.def.f.sg *latg* milk *gjù* down *tgèsa* home.f.sg *a* and *quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… in'* one.f *ur'* hour *a* by *paj* foot *bjabé̱gn.* around 'The men would go home with the milk and that would take them about an hour on foot.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

### **4.3.4 Further adjuncts**

Beneficiary adjuncts are introduced by the preposition *par/pr̩*'for' (344).

(344) *[...] i* expl *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *tjams* time *tga* rel *mavan* go.impf.3pl *sél* on.def.m.sg *pas,* pass *mávani* go.impf.3pl.3pl *sé* up *a* subord *métar* put.inf *najf* snow *pala* for.def.f.sg *... viafíar* railway *da* of *la* def.f.sg *Fùrca-Albṣù̱.* pn

'[...] it was a time when they would go up to the pass, they used to go up to remove snow for the ... Furka-Alpsu railway line.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 4.3 Adjuncts of the verb

Causal adjuncts are introduced by antrás 'through' (345) or by parví da 'because of' (346).


'And then, because of the wage, we had to go and collect [the money].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

Comitative adjuncts are expressed either by cun with' (347), by ansjaman/anzjaman 'together' (348), or by ansjaman cun 'together with' if the argument of ansjaman is mentioned (349).


'Look! These Italians were a bit together, and the Romansh or the Germans, or they put them together even from the [same] village.' (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

### 4 Verb phrase

(349) *La* def.f.sg *règína* queen *végn* pass.prs.3sg *cupanada;* fertilise.ptcp.f.sg *èla* 3sg.f *ṣgùla* fly.prs.3sg *a* and *vò* go.prs.3sg *a* for *spaz* walk *ansjaman* together *cun* with *in* indef.m.sg *grias* drone *[…].* 'The queen is fertilised; she flies away and goes for a trip with a drone […].' (Ruèras, DRG 1: 602)

Some speakers use the form *cun* 'with' with /u/ in all cases, and some speakers use /u/ with *cun*, but /ʊ/ either in all cases or only with contracted forms like *cùl* 'with the (m.sg)' or *cùlas* 'with the (f.pl)'.

Instrumental adjuncts are introduced by *cun* (350); if the adjunct refers to a material out of which something is made, *òr da* 'out of' is used (351).


### **4.4 Negation**

Tuatschin possesses two verb phrase negators: *bétga* and its allomorphs *bétg'/bé/ bigja/bgja/bigj'*, <sup>27</sup> which is the dedicated negator, and *nuéta*, which is less frequently used than *bétga*.

*Bétga* is located after the finite verb (352), which means that for compound tenses, it is located after the auxiliary verb (353), and for modal verbs heading an infinitive clause, the negator is situated after the modal verb (354).

<sup>27</sup>The form *bé* is usually only used by children and younger people, but very rarely by older people.

4.4 Negation


'Well, I didn't do it in an aggressive way […].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12

bigj' í ál' (354) Ju sa aua. 1SG can.PRS.1SG NEG go.INF into.DEF.F.SG water 'I couldn't jump into the water.' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

However, in a similar way as with particle verbs (see §4.1.3), the inverted subject (355) and some adverbs like aun 'yet', è 'also', èba 'just', lu 'then', and ùs 'now', may intervene between the finite verb and the participle or the infinitive (356-360).


### 4 Verb phrase

stòs halt dumandá [ ... ]. must.PRS.2SG.GNR just ask.INF

'At the beginning when you don't understand yet those ... strange words they use, you must just ask [ ... ].' (Camischulas, f6, §8.4)

(358) sèra nuş èba bigj' í and DEF.F.SG evening be.PRS.1PL 1PL must.IMPF.1PL 1PL just NEG go.INF ad uraș ajnta létg […]. at hour.F.PL in bed.м.sG 'And in the evening, we went, we didn't have to go to bed early [ ... ] ? (Sadrún, f6, §8.4)

(359) [...] api sau bigj'ajfach í ál' aua. and can.PRS.1SG.1SG NEG simply go.INF into.DEF.F.SG water

'[ ... ] I cannot simply jump into the water.' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

(360) Quaj è hald détga tgu sa, DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG simply INDEF.F.SG legend REL.1SG know.PRS.1SG ábar plé ju lu lu è è b bétga […] but more big.M.SG can.COND.1SG 1sG then also NEG

"This is a legend I know, but a longer one I would not be able [ ...]." (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

The two elements of betga plé 'not any more' are not necessarily immediately adjacent to each other as in (361) where a simple tense is used.

(361) Álsò ùs è 'l bigja plé òdém al vitg well now cop.prs.3sg 3sg.m NEG any\_more low\_most DEF.M.sG village […].

'Well, now it is not at the lowest part of the village any more [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m5, §8.8)

If a compound tense is used, bétga is situated before the participle and plé follows it (362 and 363).

(362) plé cun quaj bétga jus catschadur. 3sG be.PRS.3sG NEG go.PTCP.M.SG more with DEM.M.SG hunter '[...] he didn't go with this hunter any more.' (Tschamut, Büchli 1966: 12)

4.4 Negation

(363) A ju bitga ugagjau plé da, dad and then have.cond.1sG 1sG NEG dare.PTCP.UNM more COMP COMP cun èls ira vinanavaun. go.INF with 3PL.M farther 'And then I wouldn't have dared to, to go farther with them any more'.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

The same holds for modal verbs governing an infinitive phrase, where bétga precedes and ple follows infinitive (364) or the infinitive with its particle (365).


In infinitive clauses bétga precedes the infinitive (366).

(366) nuș i sé pr bitga DEM.UNM be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL up SUBORD NEG via dad autos, sé la stuaj ... sé la must.INF go.INF up DEF.F.SG | up DEF.F.SG way of car.M.PL up DEF.F.SG via dal pas. way of.DEF.M.SG pass

'[ ... ] there we went up in order to avoid the car road, the road of the pass.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

Other elements may intervene between betga and plé. (367) shows that this is the case for the particle belonging to the verb tanaj 'hold' (sé), a manner adjunct (bégn), a nominal direct object (als praus), and a locative adjunct (cò).

### 4 Verb phrase

(367) *I* 3pl *tégnan* hold.prs.3pl *bétga* neg *sé* up *schi* so *bégn* well *als* def.m.pl *praus* field.pl *cò* here *plé.* any\_more 'Here they don't see to the fields well any more.' (Berther 2007: 69)

Further elements are indirect interrogative clauses (368) and object clauses (369 and 370).


(Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 119)

Examples (371 and 372) illustrate *mù … plé* 'only ... more', which displays the same syntax as *bétga plé*.


that he only had the rope around [his belly].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

'Not yet' is rendered *bétg aun* (373 and 374) or *aun bétg* (375).

4.4 Negation

	- ''[...] then there weren't tourists yet [...].' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

*Nuéta* as a verb phrase negator is much less frequently used than *bétga*, but it expresses a stronger negation (376–378).

	- 'Oh, you are certainly able to do that, now this is not so bad.' (Ruèras, f4)

Negative adverbs are *maj* 'never' (379), *nagín/nagina* 'nobody, no' (pronoun and determiner) (380), *nuét* 'nothing' (381), and *nagljú* 'nowhere' (382). They never co-occur with *bétga*.

### 4 Verb phrase


Generally speaking, there is no double negation in Tuatschin (382 and 383).

(382) *Ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *vju* see.ptcp.unm *nagljú* nowhere *zatgéj.* something 'I haven't seen anything anywhere.' (Sadrún, m5)

Büchli 1966: 147)

(383) *Al* def.m.sg *gjával* devil *ò* have.prs.3sg *stju* must.ptcp.unm *í* go.inf *sènza* without *savaj* know.inf *fá* do.inf *zatgéj.* something 'The devil had to leave without being able to do anything.' (Bugnaj,

# 5 Simple sentences

### 5.1 Declarative sentences: Order of arguments

Tuatschin has verb-second syntax, which means that if no element of the sentence occurs before the subject, the subject precedes the verb as in (1).

(1) […] álṣò, [nuṣ] [vajn gju | ina pintga piaglja] [ ... ]. well 1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG small salary

'[...] well, we got a small salary [...].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

As shown in §4.2.2, the indirect object usually precedes the direct object (2).

lu pijè [da té] [al (2) Quèl vės DEM.M.SG have.coND.3sG then still comp pay.INF DAT 2SG DEF.M.SG piartg tga té vèvas pustrètsch dal partgirau]. money of .DEF.M.SG pig REL 2SG have.IMPF.2SG look\_after.PTCP.UNM "This one should still pay you the money for the pig you had looked after." (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

If there is an element that precedes the subject, the subject is moved after the finite verb as in (3) and (4).

(3) [Avaun in pèr (ju) gjú before INDEF.M.SG couple week.F.PL COP.IMPF.1sG 1sG down Locarno […]. PN

'A couple of weeks ago ... I was in Locarno […].' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

[ju] ... cumprau (4) [...] a [sjantar] va in zacùn. and after ઠુક.7)

The coordinating conjunctions ábar 'but' (5) and dantaun (6) 'however' do not trigger subject inversion. In contrast, api and its shorter form pi 'and, and then' do trigger it (5, 7 and 8).

### 5 Simple sentences


(Berther 1998: 18)

(7) *Als* def.m.pl *gjanitu̱rs* parent.pl *fagèvan* do.impf.3pl *al* def.m.sg *pur,* farmer *ad* and *ju* 1sg *èra* cop.impf.1sg *tschavrèr'* goatherd.f.sg *in* indef.m.sg *tjams,* time *ajn* in *l'* def.f.sg *antschata* beginning *cun* with *mju* poss.1sg.m.sg *frá,* brother *in* one.m.sg *òn* year *parsula,* alone.f.sg *api* and *stavèv'* must.impf *ins* gnr *í* go.inf *culas* with.def.f.pl *tgauras* goat.pl *tòca* until *sé* up *Nalps* pn *[...].*

'My parents were farmers, and I was a goatherd for a certain time, at the beginning with my brother, one year alone, and one had to go with the goats as far as Nalps [...].' (Sadrún, f5, §8.10)

(8) *Pi* then *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *vajramájn* true.f.sg.adv *staus* remain.ptcp.m.sg *lò.* there 'And it [= the swan] really stayed there.' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

After subordinating conjunctions there is no subject inversion (9–11).

(9) *La* def.f.sg *buéba* girl *ò* have.prs.3sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *tg'* comp *èla* 3sg *ségi* be.prs.sbjv.3sg *bétga* neg *ida* go.ptcp.f.sg *vòluntárjamajn,* voluntary.adv *èla* 3sg.f *stuévi* must.impf.sbjv.3sg *ira.* go.inf 'The girl said that she didn't go voluntarily, [but that] she was obliged to go.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 132)

5.1 Declarative sentences: Order of arguments

(10) *[...] api* and *lura* then *va* have.1sg *ju* 1sg *in'* one.f.sg *jèda* time *talafònau* call.ptcp.unm *dad* dat *èl,* 3sg.m *pr̩quaj* because *tg'* comp *èl* 3sg.m *vèva* have.impf.3sg *tr̩mèz* send.ptcp.unm *in'* indef.f.sg *anunzja* announcement *da* of *mòrt* death.f.sg *[...]*

'[...] and then I phoned him once, because I should send a death notice [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(11) *[...] avaun* before *c'* subord *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *staus* cop.ptcp.m.sg *tial* at.def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *savèvu* know.impf.1sg.1sg *da* of *quaj* dem.unm *nuét* nothing *[...].*

'[...] before I stayed with my grandfather I didn't know anything about that [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

If a subject which would normally be inverted is focalised, it may occur preverbally, as *quèls* 'these' in (12).

(12) *A* and *lur* then *scha* if *'l* 3sg.m *vèṣ* have.cond.3sg *ussa* now *pagljau* hit.ptcp.unm *par* for *èxè̱mpal* example.m.sg *in* indef.m.sg *grép* rock *tga* rel *vès* have.cond.3sg *pudju* can.ptcp.unm *bétar* throw.inf *èl,* 3sg.m *scha* corr *quèls* dem.m.pl *fùssan* be.cond.3pl *grat* immediately *schulaj* fall\_rapidly.ptcp.m.pl *gjù* down *ajl'* into.def.f.sg *aua,* water *ajl* into.def.m.sg *lac.* lake 'And then if it [the load] hit a rock which could have thrown it down, these [= the mules] would have immediately fallen down rapidly into the water, into the lake.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

The inverted subject is not immediately adjacent to the verb, and in (13) *sagir* 'sure' is located immediately after the verb.

(13) *[...] avaun* before *nus* 1pl *èra* be.impf.3sg *sagir* sure *al* def.m.sg *tgavrè* goatherd *èra* also *schòn* already *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *culas* with.def.f.pl *tgauras,* goat.pl *lèz* dem.m.sg *mava* go.impf.3sg *lu* then *èra.* also

'[...] before us the goatherd had certainly already gone with the goats, he also used to go.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11)

### 5 Simple sentences

However, some consultants reject the position of *sagir* in (13). For them, *sagir* should be located between *èra* 'also' and *schòn* 'already'.

The subject pronoun is usually obligatory in Tuatschin, but the omission of the subject may occur in subordinated and coordinated clauses if it can be recovered from the context (14 and 15).


'The only interesting thing is the first [and] second form where they [the pupils] start switching towards Sursilvan [...].' (Sadrún, m5)

(16) *Lò* there *bagagjávani* build.impf.3pl.3pl *gjù* down *catschina* limestone.f.sg *a* and *barṣchavan* burn.impf.3pl *grad* immediately *èla.* 3sg.f 'There they would mine limestone and burn it immediately.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### **5.2 Interrogative sentences**

Polar questions are characterised by a rising intonation and subject inversion (17).

(17) *Gè,* yes *sùnd* cop.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *ajn* in *tju* poss.2sg.m.sg *taritòri,* territory *distùrb'* disturb.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *té?* 2sg 'Yes, am I in your territory, do I disturb you?' (Sadrún, m8, §8.12)

### 5.2 Interrogative sentences

Content questions require the presence of an interrogative word and, like polar questions, exhibit subject inversion. Interrogative pronouns are cu/cura 'when' (18), cù 'how' (19), dacù 'why' (20), danùndar 'where from' (21), núa 'where' (22), partgé(j) 'why' (23), tgé(j) 'what' (24), tgé(j)nín/tgé(j)nina 'which one'(26), tgi 'who' (27). The interrogative determiner is tgé(j) 'which, what'(25).


### 5 Simple sentences

(27) malètg? Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi Tgi malagjau quaj who have.PRS.3sG paint.PTCP.UNM DEM.M.SG picture 'Who painted this picture?' (Sadrún, m5)

Indirect interrogative clauses will be treated in §6.2.1.3.

### 5.3 Imperative sentences

Imperative sentences may or may not lack a subject. If they have one, it may precede (28) or follow the verb (29).


There are some more elements that may precede an imperative: an indirect object (30) and the adverb mù `only, just' (31).


In prohibitive sentences, the negator bétga and its allomorphs precede the imperative (32). But if some elements precede the imperative as in (28), the negator follows it.

(32) Bétg tumaj! NEG be afraid.IMP.2PL 'Don't be afraid!' (DRG 2: 503) 5.3 Imperative sentences

Reflexive verbs use the prefix *sa-* in the imperative (33) as in all other tenses, moods, and non-finite categories.

(33) *Sapartgiraj* refl.beware.imp.2pl *dals* of.def.m.pl *bètlars* beggar.pl *cu* when *tgi* rel.3pl *vòn* go.prs.3sg *a* on *tgavaj.* horse.m.sg

'Beware of the beggars when they ride.' (DRG 2: 327)

If a stative verb forms an imperative, subjunctive mood is used, like *vajas* 'have sbjv.2pl' in (34).

(34) *Vajas* have.imp.2pl *quitaus* worry.m.pl *cu* when *vus* 2pl *majṣ* go.prs.2pl *ṣur* over *la* def.f.sg *lingja* line *via* over *… dal* of.def.m.sg *dṣùc,* train.m.sg *dal* of.def.m.sg *zùc.»* train 'Be careful when you cross the railway line, the railway line.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

The hortative is formed with the first person plural present of the verb *vulaj* 'want', *lajn* 'let's', and the infinitive (35 and 36).


Optative meaning is conveyed by the subjunctive (37), as the stative verbs do.

(37) *Djus* God *banadèschi* bless.prs.sbjv.3sg *a* and *carschjanti!* thrive.prs.sbjv.3sg 'May God bless [it] and make [it] thrive!' (DRG 5: 649) 5 Simple sentences

### 5.4 Exclamative sentences

Exclamative sentences are formed with the interrogative pronouns cù 'how' (38) or tgéj 'what' (39).


### 5.5 Voice

### 5.5.1 Reflexive

In Tuatschin, reflexive voice is formed with the prefix sa- in all finite and nonfinite categories. The Sursilvan norm stipulates that the auxiliary verb be èssar 'be', and in the corpus it is mostly so (40 and 41); however, vaj 'have' is not rare (42-44).1


<sup>1</sup> According to the DRG (1: 568), the choice of esser as auxiliary verb for reflexives in Sursilvan is due to the demand of Sursilvan grammarians since the 18th century. Nowadays speakers seek to conform to this claim, but in spoken Sursilvan, one still can find haver as auxiliary for reflexive verbs, as is the case in Tuatschin.

5.5 Voice


'I have never had a problem – he would never have got angry at me or something like that […].' (Sadrún, m4; §8.3)

(44) Als fildiròms òn sa-pagljau ajnt. DEF.M.PL wire.PL have.PRS.3PL REFL-touch.PTCP.UNM in 'The wires touched each other.' (DRG 6: 321)

### 5.5.2 Reciprocal

Reciprocal voice is formed with in ... l'autar / ina ... l'autra 'the one ... the other' (45 and 46).


'We gave each other a book.' (Sadrún, m5)

### 5 Simple sentences

### **5.5.3 Causative**

Causative voice is formed with *fá* 'make' (47–50) and *schè/schá*<sup>2</sup> 'have something done, let' (52 and 53) followed by an infinitive. The causee follows the second verb and occurs as a direct object, which is shown by the use of the direct object pronoun *mè* (vs *da mé* for the indirect object) in (51). Examples (50) and (51) furthermore show that their construction involves two direct objects.

The analysis of the semantic differences between *fá* and *schè* as causative verbs must be left to further studies.

(47) *[…] i* 3pl *vèvan* have.impf.3pl *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *vagní* come.inf *al* def.m.sg *caplòn* chaplain *da* of *Sèlva* pn *par* subord *banadí* bless.inf *la* def.f.sg *nibla* cloud *[…].*

'They'd had the chaplain of Selva come in order to bless the cloud […].' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 62)


'[...] they succeeded slowly in having [him] go [to the hospital] since he had broken a thigh.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(50) *Ju* 1sg *fétsch* make.prs.1sg *fá* do.inf *al* def.m.sg *cusunz* tailor *in* indef.m.sg *pèr* pair *tgautschas* trousers.m.pl *pr̩* for *èl.* 3sg.m

'I have the tailor make a pair of trousers for him.' (Sadrún, m4)

<sup>2</sup> *Schá* is the Standard Sursilvan form.

5.5 Voice

(51) *Èl* 3sg.m *fò* make.prs.3sg *fá* do.inf *mè* 1sg.do *in* indef.m.sg *pèr* pair *tgautschas* trousers.m.pl *pr̩* for *èl.* 3sg.m 'He has me make a pair of trousers for him.' (Sadrún, m5 and m6)

(52) *I* 3pl *schèvan* let.impf.3pl *luvrá* work.inf *fétg.* much 'They had [us] work a lot.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

(53) *Èl* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *schau* let.ptcp.unm *savaj* know.inf *la* def.f.sg *règína* queen *quaj.* dem 'He let the queen know this.' (Sadrún, m5)

Standard Sursilvan possesses the derivational suffix -*entar* which transforms a verb or another syntactic category into a causative. Tuatschin also possesses this suffix, -*antá* in the spelling used in this grammar, but to a very reduced extent. Where Standard Sursilvan has *cuschentar* 'cause to be quiet', *fughentar* 'light a fire', or *luchentar* (*il tratsch*) 'loosen (the soil)', Tuatschin has *fá còschar*, *dá fjuc*, and *fá luc* (*al tratsch*). The causative verbs with -*antá* which occur in the corpus are presented in Table 5.1. These verbs can be derived from verbs, adjectives, or nouns.

Table 5.1: Causative verbs


The causative verbs show a stem alternation like in *ju bubrjanta* 'I make drunk' (vs *nuṣ bubrantajn* 'we make drunk'). The verbs*schjantá* 'dry' and *sagljantá* 'blow' do not exhibit this alternation because they already have the diphthong *ja* in their stem.

### 5 Simple sentences

### **5.5.4 Passive**

A dynamic passive is formed with the verb *vagní* 'come' and the participle (54– 58). A stative passive is formed with the verb *èssar* 'be' and the participle (59– 61). In both cases the participle agrees with the patient subject if it precedes the passive construction.


Büchli 1966: 132)

(56) *[...] nus* 1pl *vagnévan* pass.impf.3pl *pròpi* really *tanidas* hold.ptcp.f.pl *a* and *nus* 1pl *stèvan* must.impf.1pl *amprèndar* learn.inf *a* and *nus* 1pl *stèvan* must.impf.1pl *ṣchubargè* clean.inf *a* and *fá* do.inf *a* and *tùt.* all '[...] we were really kept [in a strict way] and we had to study and we had to clean and do and everything.' (Camischùlas, f6; §8.4)

If the patient subject follows the passive verb, there is no agreement.

(57) *[...] a* and *lò* there *végni* pass.prs.3sg.expl *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *mèssa,* mass.f.sg *sunau* play.ptcp.m.sg *òrgla* organ.f.sg *a* and *cantau* sing.ptcp.m.sg *végljas* old.f.pl *canzu̱ns* song.pl *ròmò̱ntschas* Romansh.pl *[…].* '[…] and there a mass is said, the organ is played, and old Romansh songs are sung […].' (Camischùlas, Büchli 1966: 94)

5.5 Voice


'And now they have divided that, the canton has about thirty of these heads of district, these are divided into regions, and I have the Tujetsch valley and Mustér.' (Sadrún, f3; §8.1)

(61) Ins vèz' aun tg'ara dau vidajn pùntgas GNR see.PRS.3SG still COMP PASS.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM into chisel.F.PL né trádals […]. or power\_drill.M.PL 'One still can see that chisels or power drills had been used […].' (Sadrún, m4; §8.3)

Place names are considered to have no gender, hence the use of the unmarked form of the participle (62).

### 5 Simple sentences

vagnú fraquantau ò (62) Ah... Nalps è scù be.PRS.3SG PASS.PTCP.UNM visit.PTCP.UNM out as ah PN majses ad alps adina […]. assembly\_of\_houses and alp.M.PL always 'Eh ... Nalps has always been visited as an assembly of houses and as pastures [ ... ].' (Sadrún, m4; §8.3)

If the agent of a passive construction is mentioned, it is introduced by da (63 and 64). Whether da corresponds to the preposition or to the dative marker is not easy to decide. The only case where there is a difference between the two da's is the first person singular object pronoun, which is either mè (accusative and after prepositions) or mé (dative marker). As noted in §3.5, some speakers prefer using the pronoun mé (dative), whereas others use mè (accusative) in order to introduce the agent of a passive construction.

(63) […] quèls mulissiars, quèls DEM.M.PL negotiator.PL DEM.M.PL eh do.IMPF.3PL then so\_to\_speak las préfatschèntas, né, né tg' èran DEF.F.PL intermediate\_trade.PL right or COMP PASS.IMPF.3PL da quèls ah martgadònts gròns da cumissunaj commission.PTCP.M.PL DAT DEM.M.PL eh businessman.PL big.PL of la bassa, né. DEF.F.SG «lowlands» right

'[ ... ] These negotiators, they would so to speak do the intermediate trade, or they were ... commissioned by the big businessmen from outside the Grisons, right?' (Sadrún, m5; §8.9)

(64) baghètg è vagnus bagagjaus da DEF.M.SG building be.PRS.3SG PASS.PTCP.M.SG build.PTCP.M.SG DAT mju auc. POSS.1SG.M.SG uncle

'The building has been built by my uncle.' (Sadrún, m1)

# 6 Complex sentences

### 6.1 Coordination

Coordinating conjunctions are a (before consonant) / ad (before vowel) 'and' (1), api 'and, and then' (1), u tga … né tga 'either … or' (2), né tga 'or', pi 'then' (3), ábar 'but' (4), and dantaun 'however, but' (5).

(1) jèda lò, ad in' jèda tschò, in' jèda one.F.SG time here one.F.SG time there and one.F.SG time saragòrd' ju í aun ... tga nus èran REFL.remember.PRS.1SG PRS.1SG still COMP 1PL be.IMPF.1PL go.PTCP.M.PL òl ajn ustria Mírar, api sa ju bégja in restaurant.F.SG out.DEF.M.SG PN and know.PRS.1sG PRS.1sG NEG sén tgé nuș èran vagní […]. upon what 1PL be.IMPF.1PL come.PTCP.M.PL 'Once here, once there, and once I still remember ... that we had gone to

Mirer's restaurant, and I don't know what we had come up with […].' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13


'From time to time we would also ... go farther up to extract crystals instead of looking after the goats, and then we would come back a bit late.' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

### 6 Complex sentences


In the case of coordination with *né* 'or', the complementiser *tga* must be used with clauses as in (6).

(6) *A* and *né* right *grad* precisely *è* also *gl* def.m.sg *unviarn* winter *cunzún* especially *mavanṣ* go.impf.1pl.1pl *bjè* often *a* and *bagagjavan* build.impf.1pl *sprungṣ* jump.m.pl *a* and *dèvan* give.impf.1pl *cun* with *skis* ski.m.pl *né* or *cun* with *ajssa* board.f.sg *né* right *tg'* comp *ins* gnr *mava* go.impf.3sg *cun* with *bòb* bob.m.sg *da* from *vias* street.f.pl *gjù* down *[...].*

'And, right?, especially during winter we often went and built ski jumps and would go skiing or snowboarding, or we would go down the streets on bobsleigh [...].' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

### **6.2 Subordination**

The general subordinating conjunction for finite subordinate clauses is *tga* (realised as *tgu* in combination with the first person singular pronoun *ju*). It is used withrelative clauses, with argument clauses, and some adjunct clauses; in the latter case, compound conjunctions may also be used, like e.g. *durònt tga*, where the first part, *durònt* 'during', refers to the semantics of the subordinate clause and the second part, *tga* 'that' indicates subordination.

6.2 Subordination

With non-finite subordinate clauses, it is usually *da* which is used.

### **6.2.1 Argument clauses**

### **6.2.1.1 Subject clauses**

Subject clauses are either finite or non-finite. If the non-finite subject clause is located at the beginning of the sentence, the infinitive may be modified by the definite masculine article (7 and 8) or may lack it (9 and 10), without any functional change.


### 6 Complex sentences

It is also possible to use the complementiser *da* (11), but in this case the infinitive is highlighted.

(11) *Da* comp *còschar* keep\_silent.inf *fùs* be.cond.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *mé̱gljar.* better 'To keep silent would have been better.' (Ruèras, m10)

If the subject clause is located after the verb, the expletive pronoun *i* is required in subject position and the infinitive may be introduced by the complementiser *da* (12) or may lack it (13).


comp go.inf up

'And after this, if one went, one would go up to the Alpsu [pass] by train and this cost one franc ... to go up there.' (m1, Ruèras, §8.2)

Finite subject clauses are introduced by the complementiser *tga*; the expletive pronoun *i* must occur in subject position (15 and 16).

(15) *Ad* and *i* expl *è* be.prs.3sg *aun* in\_addition *schabagjau* happen.ptcp.unm *plé* more *… tga* comp *nuṣ* 1pl *èssan* be.prs.1pl *i* go.ptcp.m.pl *… tiar* to *duas,* two.f.pl *álṣò* well *ajn* in *duaṣ* two.f *jèdas* time.pl *… tiar* to *ina* one.f.sg *api* and *sjantar* afterwars *aun* in\_addition *í* go.ptcp.m.pl *ad* and *í* go.ptcp.m.pl *vi* over *tiar* to *tschèla.* dem.f.sg

'And it also happened more … that we went … to two [girls], well at two different moments … to the one and went also, and went over to the other.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

6.2 Subordination

èr' (16) Ad i è tg'ins mava a and EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG also NEG usage.M.SG COMP GNR go.IMPF.3SG to scùlèta. nursery\_school.F.SG 'And it was not usual that one attended nursery school.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 6.2.1.2 Object clauses

Object clauses can be finite or non-finite.Non-finite object clauses are introduced by the complementiser da (17 and 18).


'[ ... ] and he thought ... that he would go on the road ... and stop them.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

Finite object clauses are introduced by the complementiser tga 'that' (19) or scha 'whether' (21). Tga is not always adjacent to the main verb; in (20) a preposed temporal clause belonging to the object clause separates the complementiser from the main verb, savaj in this case.

(19) […] in' jèda saragòrd' ju aun ... tga one.F.SG time REFL.remember.PRS.1SG PRS.1SG still COMP 1PL í ajn ustria èran òl Mírar […]. nus be.IMPF.1PL go.PTCP.M.PL in restaurant.F.SG out.DEF.M.SG PN '[…] once I still remember … that we had gone to Mirer's restaurant […].' (Zarcúns, §8.13)

### 6 Complex sentences

(20) *Ju* 1sg *sa* know.prs.1sg *cu* when *[...] ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *maridaus* marry.ptcp.m.sg *tga* comp *… èri* exist.impf.3sg.expl *ajn* in *Camischùlas* pn *circa* about *quindiṣch* fifteen *ufauns* child.m.pl *… tga* rel *mavan* go.impf.3pl *a* to *scùla* school.f.sg *da* of *Camischùlas.* pn 'I know that when when … when I got married … there were in

Camischolas about fifteen … children who attended the school of Camischolas.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

(21) *[...] a* and *… lu* then *vajn* have.prs.1pl *nuṣ,* 1pl *va* have.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *dumandau* ask.ptcp.unm *sch'* if *èl* 3sg.m *prandèssi* take.cond.indir.3sg *mè* 1sg *tòcan* until *… a* to *Ruèras.* pn

'[...] and … then we, I asked whether he could take me down to Rueras.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

### **6.2.1.3 Indirect interrogative clauses**

Indirect interrogative clauses, which are a subcategory of object clauses, are either finite (23–30) or non-finite (22). They do not trigger subject inversion, in contrast to direct interrogative sentences (see §5.2). An exception occurs in (22), where the non-finite interrogative clause is focused on and precedes the verb, which triggers subject inversion.


6.2 Subordination

ruassajvals a ... pazjènts. èran COP.IMPF.3PL calm.M.PL and patient.M.PL 'And it was also something nice to look at, how these animals worked, how they ... used to go and keep calm and patient.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)


DEM.UNM

[ ... ] PN also put there some posters which show where on the way one can have a look at this.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(27) A A lu vajn nus, quaj èra tút fatg a and then have.PRS.1PL 1PL DEM.UNM PASS.IMPF.3SG all do.PTCP.UNM and avaun tg' ins savèva racògnòszau núa ins reconnoitre.PTCP.UNM before SUBORD GNR know.IMPF.3SG where GNR vèva da durmí. ... da have.IMPF.3sG to sleep.1NF where EXPL be.IMPF.3SG COMP put.INF ah als améls, sur nòtg als dèva over night.F.SG DEF.M.PL DEF.M.PL mule.PL where EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG pával pls méls [ ... ]. food.M.SG for.DEF.M.PL mule.PL

'And then we have, this had all been done and reconnoitred before, so that one knew where to sleep, where to put the mules over night, where there was food for the mules [ ... ].' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

### 6 Complex sentences

(28) *El* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *dumandau* ask.ptcp.unm *èlas* 3pl.f *partgéj* why *èlas* 3pl.f *sé̱gian* be.prs.sbjv.3pl *bétg* neg *idas* go.ptcp.3pl.f *a* to *mèssa.* mass 'He asked them why they didn't go to mass.' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 103)

(29) *[...] a* and *lu* then *sa* know.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *schòn* indeed *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *sc'* how *i* expl *funczjanava.* function.impf.3sg '[...] and therefore I know a bit how it used to function.' (Sadrún, m9,

§8.15)

(30) *[...] a* and *lu* then *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *grju* shout.ptcp.unm *li* def.dat.sg *gljut* people.f.sg *[...] tga* comp *ségi* exist.prs.sbjv.3sg.expl *trajs* three *rùsnas;* hole.f.pl *ajn* into *tgénina* which.f.sg *èl* 3sg.m *dégi* must.prs.sbjv.3sg *métar* put *ajn* into *la* def.f.sg *crusch.* cross '[...] and then he shouted to the people [...] [saying that] there were three holes; [asking] into which he should put the cross.' (Bugnaj, Büchli 1966: 134)

A special case is (31) in which the manner clause introduced by *scù* 'like, as' modifies the manner adverb *usché* 'so'.

(31) *[...] in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *da* of *la* def.f.sg *gjuvantétgna* youth *sa* can.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *schòn* indeed *raquintá* tell.inf *… usché* so *scù* as *i* expl *mava* go.impf.3sg *da* of *nòs* poss.1pl.m.sg *tjams* time.pl *a* and *tgé* what *ca* rel *va* go.prs.3sg *ùsa* now *[...].*

'[...] a bit of my youth I can indeed tell [you about] ... the way it was when we were young and the way it is nowadays [...].' (Sadrún, m9, §8.15)

### **6.2.1.4 Prepositional argument clauses**

Prepositional argument clauses are non-finite. In the corpus, the following verbs occur: *amprèndar d'ancanùschar* 'get to know' (32), *antschajvar a* 'begin to' (33),

6.2 Subordination

*calá da* 'stop doing' (34), *prèndar avaun da* 'plan' (35), and *sadacídar da* 'decide to' (36).

(32) *Api,* and *ah,* eh *quaj* dem.unm *ah* eh *fascinava* fascinate.impf.3sg *pròpi* really *mè,* 1sg *ju* 1sg *vèṣ* have.cond.1sg *ah* ah *gè* yes *ju* 1sg *vèṣ* have.cond.1sg *è* also *ugèn* with\_pleasure *ampríu* learn.ptcp.unm *d'* comp *ancanùschar* know.inf *quaj* dem.m.sg *mél* mule *[...].* 'And, eh, this really fascinated me, I would have eh yes I would have very

much liked to get to know this mule [...].' (Ruèras, m 10, §8.7)


'I'll stop going to nursery school, I can't stand it any longer.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(35) *Gè,* yes *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *atgnamajn* actually *príu,* take.ptcp.unm *príu* take.ptcp.unm *avaun* before *da* comp *préndar* take.inf *ah,* eh *zatgéj* something *històrjas* story.f.pl *cò* here *da* of *quaj* dem.unm *ah* eh *détgas* legend.f.pl *a* and *praulaṣ* fairy\_tale.f.pl *[...].*

'Actually, I had planned to take, eh, some stories here from these legends and fairy tales, [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(36) *Lu* then *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sadacidjus* refl.decide.ptcp.m.sg *da* comp *… raṣdá* talk.inf *in* indef.m.sg *pau* little *ṣur* over *da* of *la* def.f.sg *... da* of *mi'* poss.1sg.f.sg *ufaunza* childhood *[...].* 'Then I decided to ... talk a bit about ... my childhood [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 6 Complex sentences

### **6.2.2 Adjunct clauses**

### **6.2.2.1 Temporal clauses**

Temporal clauses are either finite or non-finite. Non-finite temporal clauses are introduced by *da* (37 – 39), *avaun ca* (40), or *sjantar* (41).

(37) *[…] faː* make.inf *ajn* in *[…] ʦaˈkɔnʣ* some.m.pl *diants* tooth.pl *aʎ* dat *rǝʃˈtiː* rake.m.sg *dɐ* of *lɐ* def.f.sg *ˈdʊːnɐ* woman *ʨɐ* rel *l* 3sg.m *ɔ* have.prs.3sg *rut* break.ptcp.unm *ɔːr* out *ejr* also *dɐ* subord *mɐˈʦaː* kill.inf *in* indef.m.sg *ruʃp* toad

'[…] put in some teeth to the woman's rake he had broken when he killed a toad.' (Ruèras, Valär 2013b: 8)


Romansh speaking people, had to speak German.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)


'After doing their homework, the pupils went for a walk.' (Sadrún, m5)

### 6.2 Subordination

Finite temporal clauses are introduced by *avaun ca tga* 'before', *cu* 'when', *dafartáuntiar tga* 'whilst', *durònt tga* 'when', *schi glajti scù* 'as soon as', *sjantar tga* 'after' (49), and *tòca* 'until'.

With the subordinator*cu* (derived from the interrogative pronoun *cura* 'when'), correlative *scha* 'if, then' is usually used (42 and 43).

(42) *[…] cu* when *i* expl *dat* give.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *banadiczjun,* blessing *scha* corr *fò* make.imp.2sg *la* def.f.sg *sòntga* holy *crusch.* cross '[…] when it comes to the blessing, make the sign of the cross.' (Berther


Instead of *cu* 'when' one also finds *tga*, which in combination with *ju* 'I' is realised as *tgu* (44 and45).


6 Complex sentences

> *vagnú* come.ptcp.m.unm *ò* out *cristalaṣ* crystal.f.pl *[...].*

'Out there I might have started enjoying looking for stones a bit, when I saw different places where they had blasted [the rocks], and crystals [...] had come out ... .' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

Examples (46—50) illustrate the other subordinators that introduce a temporal clause.


6.2 Subordination

(50) *Api* and *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sòra* nun *òra* out *uschéja* so *… avaun* in\_front\_of *niaṣ* poss.1pl.m.sg *ésch* door *ad* and *ò* have.prs.3sg *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *a* and *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *tòca* until *la* 3sg.f *audi* hear.prs.sbjv.3sg *anzatgéj* something *[...].* 'And then the nun was out [on the corridor] like this ... in front of our

door, waiting and waiting until she would hear something [...].' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)

### **6.2.2.2 Manner clauses**

Non-finite manner clauses are introduced by *cun* 'with' (51) and finite manner clauses either by *scù* (52), *scù tga* (53), or only *tga* (54).


'Today it is the Furka or the … the *ban* 'train', as nowadays it is called in German.' (i.e the Matterhorn-Gotthard-Bahn) (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

(53) *Nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *bjè,* often *gè,* yes *a* subord *fá* do.inf *gjucs,* game.m.pl *scù* as *tg'* comp *ins* gnr *fagèva* do.impf.3sg *plé* more *baut* early *[...].* 'We would often go and play, as one would do it in the past [...].' (Sadrún,

m9, §8.15)

<sup>1</sup>*Ban* is another German word (*Bahn*) for 'train'.

### 6 Complex sentences

(54) *La* def.f.sg *bùca* mouth *stuèv'* should.impf.3sg *èssar* cop.inf *tga* subord *la* 3sg.f *pudèv'* can.impf.3sg *ajn,* into *la* def.f.sg *lata.* slat 'The cutting should be such that the slat could fit into it.' (Camischùlas,

DRG 3: 583)

### **6.2.2.3 Purposive clauses**

Non-finite purposive clauses are introduced by *a* after a verb of movement (55 and 56) and by *par/pr̩*(57) or *da* (58 and 59) in all other cases; *da*, however, is very rare. Example (56) contains both *par* and *a*.

	- to Nalps to build the wall of the reservoir.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

§8.7)

6.2 Subordination


'And one would not know how to put the carnations [...] (literally 'how to do in order to put the carnations').' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

There are several examples where the subordinator a is absent (60). In (61) both constructions occur - with and without the subordinator a


(61) […] api èri dad í \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ api and be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL to go.INF - weed.INF potato.M.PL and èri dad í zarclá a al graun. be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL COMP go.INF SUBORD weed.INF DEF.M.SG cereal '[…] and then one had to weed the potato fields and then one had to go and weed the cereal fields.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

Finite purposive clauses are introduced by par par tga (62) or only by tga (63).

(62) par tga brișchi sèra bétg ... and DEF.F.SG evening SUBORD COMP burn.PRS.SBJV.3SG NEG quaj, quaj mava ajnagjù vagnéva PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM DEM.UNM go.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M in\_down cul maun èra sènza ... [vòns] vidò with.DEF.M.SG hand also without [glove.M.PL] and pull.IMPF.3SG out gjù sé sél plantschju. còtgla charcoal.coll down up on.DEF.M.SG floor

`And in the evening, to avoid it burning ... was that, there he went into

### 6 Complex sentences

[the fire] with one hand, also without [gloves], and pulled out charcoal from down there up to the floor.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

(63) *A* and *quaj* dem.unm *stèvnṣ* must.impf.1pl.1pl *èssar* cop.inf *… pulits-pulits* red~well\_behaved.m.pl *l'* def.f.sg *jamna* week *… tg'* comp *al* def.m.sg *bap* father *dètschi* give.prs.sbjv.3sg *in* one.m.sg *frang* franc *a* and *miaz.* half.m.sg 'And we had to be … very well-behaved during the week … so that my father would give [us] one and a half francs.' (Ruèras, m1, §8.2)

In the DRG materials, there is one occurrence of the negator *bétg* preceding the subordinator *tga*, i.e. outside the subordinate clause (64).

(64) *Vèndardé* Friday.m.sg *sògn* holy *stù* must.prs.3sg *in* gnr *muantá* move.inf *la* def.f.sg *tgarn* meat *a* and *las* def.f.pl *ljòngjas* sausage.pl *bétga* neg *tga* subord *vignan* come.prs.3pl *ajn* in *als* def.m.pl *baus.* beetle.pl 'On Good Friday one must move the meat and the sausages so that the beetles cannot get into the meat.' (DRG 3: 385)

This construction has not been accepted by my consultants; however, a similar construction which, in contrast to the Tuatschin example (64), includes the subordinator *par*, can be found in other Romansh varieties like in the Sutsilvan dialect of Dalin (65).

(65) *Par* for *bétg* neg *tg'* subord *in* gnr *schleschi* slip.prs.sbjv.3sg *dat* give.prs.3sg *il* def.m.sg *calger* shoemaker *eign* in *in* indef.m.sg *pêr* couple *guspas* nail.pl *els* in.def.m.pl *calzers.* shoe.pl 'In order not to slip, the shoemaker hits some nails into the shoes.' (Ṣutsilván, Dagljégn, DRG 4: 607)

Therefore it is possible that the Tuatschin construction in (64) belonged to an older variety of the language.

6.2 Subordination

### **6.2.2.4 Causal clauses**

Non-finite causal clauses are introduced by *da* (66), and finite causal clauses are introduced by *parquaj/prquaj tga ̩* (67), *partgé* (68), *má tga* (69), *tga* (70), or*cunquaj tga* 'since' (71).


'[...] and then I phoned him once, because he had sent a death notice [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(68) *Avaun* before *ina* indef.f.sg *fjasta* celebration *mavan* go.impf.3pl *aj* 3pl *… tialas* to.def.f.pl *… gjufnas* young\_woman.pl *… par* for *nègla,* carnation.f.pl *partgé* because *matévan* put.impf.3pl *sé* up *sé* up *la* def.f.sg *tgapjala* hat *… ina* indef.f.sg *nègla.* carnation

'Before a celebration they would go … to the … girls for carnations, because they would put … a carnation on their hat.' (Zarcúns, m2, §8.13)

(69) *Cò* here *ò* have.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *dau* give.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *sèrvla,* cervelat *má* because *tg'* subord *i* expl *è* cop.prs.3sg *damaun* tomorrow *dumèngja.* Sunday

'Here, mother provided a cervelat, because tomorrow is Sunday.' (Cavòrgja, m7, §8.17)

### 6 Complex sentences


'[…] since in the army he had … maybe been, with the horses, or had to do with horses, then ... he had ... bought a donkey, that is to say a mule, not a donkey, a mule.' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7)

### 6.2.2.5 Conditional clauses

Conditional clauses are formed in three different ways:


In all these cases there is subject inversion in the apodosis, with some rare exceptions. Furthermore, correlative lura is very rare in the corpus; it only occurs in Büchli (1966).

(72) Scha té as lu mèmja bjè da raclamá a if grí, Run. shout.INF CORR put.PRS.1PL 1PL 2SG in\_down DEF.M.SG PN 'If you really have so much to complain and shout about, we will throw

you down into the Run [creek].' (Berther 1998: 120)

6.2 Subordination

(73) A da gjantá ... vida and of lunch.INF if if INDEF.F.SG nun C German COP.IMPF.3SG at of majșa, scha stuèvan table.F.SG CORR must.IMPF.3PL all DEM.F.SG 1PL Romansh.F.PL speak.INF tudèstg. German.M.sG

'And during lunch ... if a German ... nun was ... at table, all these - we, the Romansh speaking people, had to speak German.' (Camischùlas, f6, §8.4)


'[…] if he was in a good mood, one could get to know some things.' (Sadrún, m4, 188.3)

(77) Vasèvan ins ina signura [...] cun schuba cuérta, see.IMPF.3SG.EUPH GNR INDEF.F.SG woman with shirt.F.SG short a superals còtschna, […] lura spitgavan grónda red CORR expect.IMPF.3PL DEF.M.PL farmer.PL INDEF.F.SG big malaura […]. storm

'If one saw a woman with a short shirt, a red one, the farmers would expect a heavy storm.' (Sèlva, Büchli 1966: 34)

### 6 Complex sentences

Tense and mood is used in the following way. Present factual conditional clauses take the present tense in the protasis as well as in the apodosis (72), and past factual conditional clauses are the imperfect in both the protasis and the apodosis (73, 75, 76, and 77)

Present counterfactual conditional clauses have the direct conditional in the protasis as well as in the apodosis (74), and past counterfactual conditional clauses take the of the indirect conditional in both the protasis and apodosis. For examples, see §4.1.2.2.10.

### **6.2.2.6 Consecutive clauses**

Consecutive clauses are introduced by *tga* (78–80) or by *usché tga* (81). If an adjective triggers a consecutive clause, the adjective is modified by *schi* 'so' (82).

(78) *Èla* 3sg.f *dètgi* give.prs.sbjv.3sg *in'* one.f *jèda* time *ina* def.f.sg *curnada* push\_with\_horn.ptcp.f.sg *li* dat *èl* 3sg.m *tg'* subord *èl* 3sg.m *stètschi* stay.prs.sbjv.3sg *sél* on.def.m.sg *plaz.* place 'She [the cow] would give him a push with her horns so that he would remain on the spot.' (Tschamùt, Büchli 1966: 20) (79) *[...] quaj* dem.m.sg *piartg* pig *èra* be.impf.3sg *juṣ* go.ptcp.m.sg *atráṣ* through *a* and *vèva* have.impf.3sg *rùt* break.ptcp.unm *gjù* down *al* def.m.sg *matg* bunch *tga* subord *'l* 3sg.m *vèva* have.impf.3sg *mù* only *la* def.f.sg *còrda* rope *plé* more *antù̱rn.* around '[...] this pig had gone through and had broken the bunch of flowers so that he only had the rope around [his belly].' (Sadrún, m6, §8.11) (80) *Bjè* many *jèdaṣ* time.pl *ṣèni* be.prs.3pl.3pl *scapaj* escape.ptcp.m.pl *tga* subord *nuṣ* 1pl *vajn* have.prs.1pl *ah* eh *pròpi* really *gju* have.ptcp.unm *ah* ah *gròndas* big.f.pl *misé̱rjas* trouble.pl *[...].* 'They escaped many times so that we had big troubles [...].' (Ruèras, m10, §8.7) (81) *[...] a* and *gl* def.m.sg *aucségnar* priest *è* be.prs.3sg *pròpi* really *vagnuṣ* come.ptcp.m.sg *ála lavina, ad è … staus mòrts, usché*

into.def.f.sg

avalanche

and

be.prs.3sg

cop.ptcp.m.sg

dead.m.sg

so

6.2 Subordination

*tga* comp *las* def.f.pl *stréaṣ* witch.pl *òn* have.prs.3pl *… fatg* do.ptcp.unm *vandètga* revenge.f.sg *cugl* with.def.m.sg *aucségnar* priest *da* of *Sadrún.* pn

'[...] and the priest really was engulfed by the avalanche and was … dead, so that the witches got their revenge on the priest of Sedrun.' (Sadrún, m6, §8.5)

(82) *Èla* 3sg.f *è* be.prs.3sg *saprida* refl.take.ptcp.f.sg *ajn* in *quaj* dem.unm *schi* so *starmantús* terrible.adj.unm *tg'* subord *èla* 3sg.f *è* be.prs.3sg *curdada* fall.ptcp.f.sg *ajn* into *ina* indef.f.sg *rùsna* hole *nùndétga.* awful 'She took this so seriously that she fell in an awful hole.' (Cavòrgja, f1)

### **6.2.2.7 Comparative clauses**

Non-finite comparative clauses are introduced by *scù da*, literally 'how of' or 'like of' (83), and finite comparative clauses are introduced by *scù* (84) or *scù tga* (85).


'[...] then I … phoned him and said that my husband had died as they knew [...].' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

(85) *Nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *bjè,* often *gè,* yes *a* subord *fá* do.inf *gjucs,* game.m.pl *scù* as *tg'* comp *ins* gnr *fagèva* do.impf.3sg *plé* more *baut* early *[...].* 'We would often go and play, as one would do it earlier [...].' (Sadrún, m9,

§8.15)

### 6 Complex sentences

### 6.2.2.8 Concessive clauses

Concessive clauses are introduced by schabi tga (86).

(86) Schabi tga lu, cun sis òns capév' ins lu although COMP then with six year.M.PL understand.IMPF.3SG GNR then hald aun mèmja pauc a vèva bigja la... fòrsa da just still too fá zatgéj. do.INF something 'Although then, at the age of six, one would understand too little and wouldn't have the ... strength to do something.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 6.2.2.9 Instead of

'Instead of' only occurs in non-finite clauses in the corpus. They are introduced either by anstagl (87) or anstagl da (88).


### 6.3 Focus

If the focus is on verbs, participles, particles belonging to verbs, certain adverbs, or clauses which give new information, they are moved to the beginning of the sentence or clause

In case a verb is focused, it is moved in its infinitive form and the finite form of the same verb is left behind in the background clause (89 and 90).

6.3 Focus

(89) *Ju* 1sg *a* have.3sg *cò* here *in* indef.m.sg *bagljèt* ticket *tòcan* until *gjù* down *Turitg,* pn *ábar* but *ira* go.inf *vònd* go.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *mù* only *gjù* down *Sumvitg.* pn 'I have here a ticket to Zurich, but I only go as far as Sumvitg.' (Sadrún, Büchli 1966: 106) (literally '... but GOING I only go till Sumvitg')

(90) *Na* no *na,* no *a* and *durmí* sleep.inf *durmévan* sleep.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *cò.* here 'No, no, and as for sleeping, we would sleep here.' (Surajn, f5, §8.10)

In the perfect tense, participles are moved without their auxiliary verb, which remains in the background clause (91 and 92). Example (93) shows that the participle can be moved with its complements.


'[...] this has been concreted, and they still hold.' (Sadrún, f3, §8.1)

	- '[...] but physically we had to work as hard as those [children].' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

Infinitives modified by a modal verb are left-dislocated without the modal verb, which remains in the background clause (94).

6 Complex sentences

tiars al barlòt a tèman, (94) Als DEF.M.PL animal.PL see.PRS.3PL DEF.M.SG sorcery and be\_afraid.PRS.3PL mù dí sòn i nuét. but say.INF can.PRS.3PL 3PL nothing 'The animals see the sorcery and are afraid, but they cannot say anything.' (Cavòrgja, Büchli 1966: 125)

Example (95) shows the movement of the particle cuntar 'towards' out of the particle verb prèndar ancuntar 'receive' (calqued on German entgegennehmen).

(95) Alsò ancùntar prandès 'l tùt ùsa? well towards take.coND.3sG 3sG all now 'Well, would he receive everything now?' (Sadrún, m5)

If an indirect interrogative clause is focused, it may (96) or may not be resumed by a demonstrative pronoun (97). In the case of (96), the demonstrative pronoun used is gljèz.

(96) Ins vèz' aun tg' èra dau vidajn GNR see.PRS.3SG still COMP PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM into sch' pùntgas né trádals; gljez chisel.F.PL or power\_drill.M.PL whether 3PL blow\_up.IMPF.3PL DEM.UNM sau bétg. know.PRS.1SG.1SG NEG

'One still can see that chisels or power drills had been used; whether they would blow up I don't know.' (Sadrún, m4, l. §8.3)

(97) ins bégj éxáct ah what take.IMPF.3PL exactly out know.PRS.3SG GNR NEG exactly […].

'Ah, what ... they really mined, one does not know exactly [...].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

If the focus is on a noun, a pronoun referring to it must be left in the background clause (98).

6.3 Focus

(98) *Las* def.f.pl *nòtízjas* news.pl *sa* know.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *bétg* neg *danù̱ndar* from\_where *als* def.m.pl *gjaniturs,* parents.pl *als* def.m.pl *dus* two.m.pl *baps* father.pl *prandèvan* take.impf.3pl *aj* 3sg *[...].* 'I don't know where my parents had the news from, the two fathers took them, there was in Rueras, there was [only] one who had a radio.' (Sadrún, m1, §8.2)

Contrastive focus is done by intonation; the focused constituents remain in their place according to their syntactic function (99 and 100).


'It is to Gion that he wants to give a book, not to Maria.' (Sadrún, m4)

# **7 Morphological processes**

### **7.1 Reduplication**

In Tuatschin, reduplication has only an intensification function. Syntactic categories that may be reduplicated are attributive (1) and predicative (2 and 3) adjectives, adjectives used adverbially (4), as adverbs modifying adjectives (5), as adverbs modifying verbs (6 and 7), or functioning as a discourse marker (8).


nothing

'My grandfather was up there and was sleeping like a log, he hadn't heard anything at all.' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

### 7 Morphological processes


A similar case is the repetition of words (9 and 10). It differs from the reduplication insofar as the repeated items are separated by a short pause; they furthermore do not indicate intensification, but only repetition.

(9) *[...] a* and *lu* then *stuèv'* must.impf.1sg *ju* 1sg *la* def.f.sg *sèra* evening *adin'* always *ir'* go.inf *a* subord *fá* make.inf *tschajna* dinner.f.sg *… a* subord *fá* make.inf *… manèstra,* pottage.f.sg *manèstra,* pottage.f.sg *manèstra,* pottage.f.sg *manèstra.* pottage.f.sg

'[...] and then in the evening I always had to go and prepare dinner ... and prepare pottage, pottage, pottage, pottage.' (Ruèras, f4, §8.16)

(10) *[...] a* and *quèl'* dem.f.sg *èra* be.impf.3sg *da* to *trá* pull.inf *… trá,* pull.inf *trá* pull.inf *… tùt* all *al* def.m.sg *latg* milk *cèntrifugau.* centrifugate.ptcp.unm

'[...] and we had to pull ... pull, pull ... the whole centrifuged milk.' (Ruèras, m4, §8.16)

7.2 Word formation

### **7.2 Word formation**

Since Tuatschin is a spoken language, many derivational affixes and compound words which are used in Standard (written) Sursilvan<sup>1</sup> do not occur.

### **7.2.1 Compounding of nouns**

Compounding is achieved by joining two nouns with the preposition *da* 'of' (11), and also by juxtaposition of two nouns (12), whereby the second noun modifies the first one as in *baun-pégna* 'oven bench', literally 'bench-oven'. Which strategy is used depends on the compound, and in some cases the two strategies may apply to the same nouns with different meanings. This last point is best exemplified by (11).

(11) *In* indef.m.sg *tiar* animal *da* of *tgèsa,* house.f.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *'l* def.m.sg *gjat* cat *a* and *'l* def.m.sg *tgaun,* dog *a* and *tiar-tgèsa* animal.m.sg-house.f.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *sagir* for\_sure *tùt* all *quaj* dem.unm *tga* rel *vò* go.prs.3sg *bigj'* neg *ad* to *alp.* alpine\_pasture.m.sg *Als* def.m.pl *tiars-tgèsa* animal.pl-house.f.sg *èn* cop.prs.3pl *atgnamajn* actually *cò,* here *né* or *sén* on *majṣès,* assembly\_of\_houses.m.sg *quaj* dem.gl *è* cop.prs.3sg *quèlas* dem.f.pl *tgauras* goat.pl *a* and *nùrsas* sheep.f-pl *a* and *pòrs.* pig.m.pl 'A *tiar da tgèsa*, these are cats and dogs, and *tiar tgèsa* are of course all those that do not go to the alpine pastures. The *tiars tgèsa* are actually here, or up in the assembly of houses, these are the goats, the sheep, and

the pigs.' (Tuatschín, Cavòrgja, m7) (12) *[...] lò* there *ani* have.prs.3pl.3pl *bagagjau* build.ptcp.unm *gjù* down *la* def.f.sg *… raquéntani* tell.prs.3pl.3pl *… la* def.f.sg *crapa* stone.coll *par* subord *bagagè* build.inf *al* def.m.sg

### *clutgè-basèlgja.*

tower.m.sg-church.f.sg

'[...] there they removed, as they say, the stones used to build the church tower [of Sedrun].' (Sadrún, m4, §8.3)

<sup>1</sup> See Spescha (1989: 163–194) for extensive lists.

### 7 Morphological processes

The compounding of nouns by juxtaposition is relatively frequent; further examples are *carschèn-matg* 'waxing moon of May', *crusch-fiar* 'iron cross', *éschstiva* 'door of the living-room', *fil-sajda* 'silk thread', *lungatg-mùma* 'mothertongue', *mòni-scúa* 'broomstick', *patrún-basèlgja* 'Church Patron', *pòrta-basèlgja* 'church door', *pòrta-clavau* 'barn door', *prajt-crap* 'rock face', *pròcèsjún-basèlgja* 'religious procession', *tètg-tégja* 'roof of the alpine hut', and *tgau-vitg* 'head of the village'. *Nadal-nòtg* 'Christmas Eve' has different syntax: here, it is the first noun that modifies the second one, probably under the influence of German *Weihnachtsnacht*, literally 'Christmas Night'.

### **7.2.2 Derivation**

Some derivational morphemes have already been treated: the non-finite verbal categories past participle (§4.1.2.1.1), gerund (§4.1.2.1.2), infinitive (§4.1.2.1.3), the adverbialiser *-majn* (§4.3.3), and the causative -*antá* (§5.5.3).

### **7.2.2.1 Diminutive and augmentative**

The diminutive of nouns is formed with the suffix *-èt/-èta*. (13) shows that the use of the diminutive does not preclude the use of *pin* 'small'.

(13) *Lò* there *fùva* exist.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *pin* small *laj-èt* lake-dim *cun* with *pauc'* little.f.sg *aua.* water 'There was a small lake with little water.' (Ruèras, Büchli 1966: 62)

Further examples are *buébèt* 'little boy', *fjuchèt* 'little fire', and *vitgèt* 'small village'.

There are two augmentative suffixes. One is *-ún/-una* (14 and 15).


§8.3)

7.2 Word formation

Further examples are *buébúna* 'very tall girl', *raubuna* 'big assets', *ùmún* 'big man', and *tgèsuna* 'big house'.

The other augmentative is *-az*, as in *fòmaz* (> *fòm* 'hunger') (16).

(16) *Ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *fòm-az.* hunger-augm 'I am ravenous.' (Sadrún, m5)

The suffix *-ún/-una* is productive and can be added to almost all nouns; in contrast, the use of *-az* is very reduced and seems to be restricted to *fòmaz* in Tuatschin.

### **7.2.2.2 Further nominal derivational morphemes**

The most common derivational suffix in the corpus is -*zjun*. It derives nouns from verbs like *còmplicazjun* 'complication' < *cumplicar* 'complicate'. In some cases -*zjun* derives a noun from a verb that is not used or has another meaning in Tuatschin. An example is *vòtazjun* 'votation', which is derived from Standard Sursilvan *votar*, but the verb that is used for 'vote' is *vuṣchá*, in Tuatschin as well as in normal Sursilvan speech. Another example is *tradizjun* 'tradition', which is derived from *tradí*, but *tradí* means 'betray' and not 'transmit'. This means that some of the nouns that are derived by -*zjun* are learned words.

Some more examples of nouns derived by -*zjun* are *afèczjun* 'affection', *confadarazjun* 'confederation', *dirèczjun* 'direction', *fòrmazjun* 'formation', *habitazjun* 'appartment', *munizjun* 'munition', *òbligazjun* 'obligation', *réaczjun* 'reaction', and *tussègazjun* 'poisoning'.

Another suffix that derives nouns from verbs is the feminine ending of the past participle *-ada/-èda*: *cuṣchinada* 'mixture of food' (< *cuṣchiná* 'cook'), *santupada* 'meeting' (< *santupá* 'meet'), *purṣchida* 'offer' (<*pòrṣcher* 'offer'), *satagljèda* 'cut (to oneself)' (< *satagljá* 'cut oneself'), and *scargjèda* 'droving down the animals from the alps' (<*scargè* 'drove down'). A further example is *antschata* 'beginning', which is derived from *antschajvar* 'begin' the irregular participle of which is *antschiat* (unm) / *antschata* (f) 'begun'. In the case of *curnada* 'push with the horns', the noun is derived from another noun, *tgérn/còrns* 'horn/horns'.


Note that in *santupada*, *satagljèda*, and *samudargjém* the reflexive prefix *sa-* is maintained, which shows that it forms a tight unit with the verb.

The suffixes -*dad*, *-détgna/-tétgna*, -*èzja*, and -*ira* derive nouns from adjectives. Examples:

### 7 Morphological processes


The suffixes -*am*, -*èssar*<sup>2</sup> , and -*za* derive nouns from nouns. Examples are *gaglinam* 'flock of chickens' (< *gaglina* 'hen'), *purèssar* 'farming sector' (< *pur* 'farmer'), *fòrèstalèssar* 'forestry'(< *fòrèstal* 'forest ranger'), *scòlarèssar* 'school sector' (< *scùla* 'school'), and *ufaunza* 'childhood' (< *ufaun* 'child').

The suffix -*aglja* derives nouns from verbs like in *pjaglja* 'wages' (< *pijè* 'pay') or from adjectives like in *stgiraglja* 'darkness' (< *stgir* 'dark'); in the case of *panaglja* 'butter tub', the derivation is not clear; it could be derived from *pèn* 'buttermilk' (Decurtins (2012: 777)).

Prefixes are *mal*- and *anza-*/*za*-. *mal*- usually modifies adjectives: *malcuntjants* 'unsatisfied', *malsagidajvals* 'ungainly', and *malsagirs* 'unsure', and *anza-*/*za*- (< *ins sa* 'one knows') corresponds to English 'any' or 'some' with indefinite or other pronouns: *zacù* 'somehow', *zacú* 'somewhen', *zanúa* 'somewhere', *anzatgéj*/*zatgéj* 'anything', and *antzatgi*/*zatgi* 'anybody'.

<sup>2</sup>This suffix is calqued from German *-wesen* 'being, entity'.

# **8 Texts**

In the glosses, gender is only indicated on the first element of the noun phrase; plural is always glossed. Proper nouns are anonymised and glossed pn.

The transcribed texts published in this chapter correspond to 1 hour and 35 minutes of recorded speech.

### **8.1 Mia lavur**

**My job** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, f3, aged 75) Recorded 2017/08/27 in Sadrún Duration 7'15"

*Ju* 1sg *raquénta* tell.prs.1sg *da* of *mia* poss.1sg.f.sg *lavur* job *tga* rel *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *fatg* do.ptcp.unm 1

*als* def.m.pl *davù̱ṣ* last.pl *òns.* year.pl 2

'I'll tell [you] about the job I've done for the past few years.'


'Well ... my husband died when he was only fifty years old.'

*A* and *lu* then *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *stada* cop.ptcp.f.sg *parsula* alone.f.sg *anavù̱s* back *cun* with *trajṣ* three *ufauns.* child.m.pl 5

'And then I was left alone with three children.'


'Well, they were ... just, the oldest was a recruit, and the other two [were] in an apprenticeship.'


And ... in fact, my husband was a supervisor, and in addition he used to make ... the trails.'

10 Ábar lu quaj but then COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM NEG yet so much

'But at that time this was not that much yet.'


'And then ... from time to time I would go with him to give colour [to the stones indicating] the trails or to put up signposts and things like that, and then ... I thought:'

14 «Ah, quaj fùs è lavur pr mè.» ah DEM.UNM COP.COND.3SG also INDEF.F.SG job for 1sG

'Ah, this could also be a job for me.'


'And then I, we were in fact under the ... B.A.W, this means «Grison workinggroup of trails" in Cuera.'

<sup>1</sup>Bündner Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Wanderwege.

18 A lu èra PN ah atgnamajn mju ... schèf, api lura and then COP.IMPF.3SG PN eh actually POSS.1SG.M.SG boss and then ju din'an jèda talafònau èl 19 have.1sg 1sg one.F.sg time call.PTCP.UNM DAT 3sG.M because SUBORD 3sG.M 20 trmèz in' anunzja da mòrt. have.IMPF.3SG send.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG announcement of death.F.SG carta par, è 21 also ina schòn this\_is\_to\_say INDEF.F.SG card SUBORD eh DEM.M.PL know.PRS.3PL also already ùsa mataj ju amblidá quèla, 22 quaj, DEM.UNM now probably COMP 23 ùm, api lu DEM.F.SG job REL.1SG do.IMPF.1sG gladly with POSS.1sG.M.SG man and then 24 ju ... tlafònau dad èl a détg, èba, have.prs.1sG 1sG 1sG call.pTCP.UNM DAT 3sg.m and say.PTCP.UNM exactly èba 25 mil ùm ségi scù i POSS.1SG.M.SG man be.PRS.SBJV.3SG precisely die.PTCP.M.SG as 3PL ábar ... ju fagèssi 26 sápian, ugèn vinavaun know.PRS.SBJV.3PL but 1SG do.COND.INDIR.1SG with\_pleasure still 27 quèla 'l détg: DEM.F.SG job and have.PRS.3SG 3SG.M say.PTCP.UNM

'And then P.N. was actually my ... boss, and then I phoned him once, because he had sent a death notice, that is to say a card for, ah, they already knew that, now probably that ... now I can forget about this, this job I loved to do with my husband, and then I ... phoned him and said that my husband had died as they knew, but ... that I would like to keep doing this job, and then he said:'

28 «Mir sind nid so frauäfintlich.»3 we are not so misogynistic

'We are not really misogynistic.'

«Ah súpar.» 29 Api vau détg: and have.PRS.1SG.1SG say.PTCP.UNM oh great

'And then I said: «Oh, great!»'

30 A lu ju antschiat va cun cun quaj. and then have.PRS.1sG 1sG begin.PTCP.UNM with DEM.UNM

'And then I started with it.'

<sup>2</sup> Bugen is Standard Sursilvan, whereas ugèn, as in line 26, is the genuine Tuatschin form. 3Said in Swiss German.

### 8 Texts


`And in 1987 we had a federal vote about the trails, [about] whether it would be adopted or not.'

34 quaj vagnú priu ajn, a lu and - be.prs.3sg DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.PTCP.UNM take.PTCP.UNM in and then vi quaj 35 O la cònfadarazjun dau have.PRS.3SG DEF.F.SG confederation give.PTCP.UNM over DEM.UNM DAT every a lezs sèzs lura ... métar 36 cantún, canton.M.SG and DEM.M.PL have.PRS.3PL self.M.PL must.PTCP.UNM then | put.INF szásén pajs on foot.M.PL DEM.UNM precisely how go.INF forward and all and every зв lu stavju dá ajn tùt tgé ca municipality.F.SG have.PRS.3SG then must.PTCP.UNM give.INF in all what REL 39 vagi, nùca la vagi lògans cun 3SG.F have.PRS.SBJV.3SG where 3SG.F have.PRS.SBJV.3SG place.M.PL with

40 mùssavias, a las sèndas, tùt. signpost.F.PL and DEF.F.PL trail.PL all

'Then ... this has been adopted, and then the confederation handed it over to every canton, and these ... had to get it off the ground themselves, this is to say, precisely ... how to go ... on, and everything, and every municipality had then to inform about everything they had, where they had places with signposts and trails, everything.'

sjantar òi 41 A gju nừm ... İ and after 42 ségia4. i mídian ò tùt als muossavías.5 be.PRS.SBJV.3SG 3PL change.PRS.SBJV.3PL out all DEF.M.PL signpost.PL

And after this, one had to ... it was, they would replace all the signposts. '

<sup>5</sup> ségia is a performance error for ségi.

<sup>5</sup> Muossavías is Standard Sursilvan for Tuatschin mùssavias.

43 A quaj èra tschians. and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG hundred.M.PL

'And there were hundreds [of them].'


'And I had to go to the entire valley in order to first take down all these ... all these ... places where there were signposts.'


`And then ... they ordered all new ones ... for the entire valley'


'And then ... I had to go and replace this ... with the help of ... of the municipality I had ... also ... had to put ... new concreted ... posts, right, up there on top of the peaks, even the army had to help me once in Maighels, because up there in Maighels the army was always bombing incredibly much.'

<sup>6</sup> Bétònaj is a performance error for bétònádas.


"This is exactly a place ... where they stored all the munition, for sure."

quaj 59 Ad ùs è tút. and now COP.PRS.3SG DEM.UNM nothing of.DEF.M.SG all

And now there is nothing of all that [left].'

60 Ad ju vèva gjù dad ira, dad ira fatg and 1sG have.IMPF.1sG make.PTCP.UNM down to go.INF to go.INF into

métar sé muossavías. 61 Majgals a SUBORD put.INF up signpost.F.PL PN

And I had arranged to go, to go ... to Maighels to put up signposts.'


'And there was ... up there a vigilance guard, no way to go through, that day they didn't let us go through [that sentry].'

ir' 65 Ju stòpi a gjù cun quèls s sé 1SG must.PRS.SBJV.1SG go.INF SUBORD make.INF down with DEM.M.PL up

66 la tégja da Majgals, lò pròpi ・・・ DEF.F.SG alpine\_hut of.DEF.M.SG of PN al bürò. 67

DEF.M.SG office

'I should go and make an appointment with those up there in the alpine hut of the, of Maighels, there, there was precisely ... the office.'

68 L' autar dé va ju gju la lubiantscha dad DEF.M.SG other day have.PRS.1SG 1SG have.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG permission ATTR 69 vidajn, ábar stòpi prèndar malitèr cun mè, tga

go.INF in


"The day after I got permission to go there, but I needed to take with me some soldiers that had a radio and would say when we should ... go behind a mountain [to protect ourselves].'


'This was something incredible, but these were very beautiful moments.'


`And the municipal employees were just renovating the swimming pool and then they said: '


'We have no time ... to dedicate to you, we have no workers to give to you.'


'And then I thought: «In this case, you simply do it yourself.» and I put in something like fifteen posts myself.'

<sup>7</sup> Jo nu: said in Swiss German.

### 8 Texts

	- in and hold.PTCP.UNM have.PRS.3SG 3PL.F still always

'I would simply take ... bad ... sand, that is to say cement and water with me, and this has been concreted, and they still hold.'

83 dad í gju and\_then have.PTCP.UNM to go.INF D DEM.F.SG time with- know.PRS.1SG.1SG 84 bétg c' ju sùn ida da NEG when 1sG be.PRS.1sG go.PTCP.F.SG from DEF.F.SG valley PN in\_up 85 stuèv' í bauns, ah, sél Krüzlipass, Pas must.IMPF.1SG go.INF on.DEF.M.PL ridge.PL eh on.DEF.M.SG PN pass Cruschs, cun muossavías, a a vèva 86 dlas sjat da quèlas da of.DEF.F.PL cross.PL with signpost.F.PL and have.IMPF.1sG seven of DEM.F.PL to 87 purtá sé.

carry.INF up

'And then I had to go ... that time with-, I don't know when I went up the Strem valley, I had to go along the ridges, eh, on the Krüzlipass, Pass dallas Cruschs, with signposts, and I had seven of them to carry up.'

	- enough

'And this was terribly heavy, and then I thought [it was] enough.'

90 Cò angjù va ju la finala nagíns. here in down have.PRS.1SG 1SG DEF.F.SG end no.M.PL

'In the end I don't have any down here.'

da préndar als় 91 Abar ju vèva but - 1sG have.IMPF.1sG to take.INF DEF.M.PL old.PL back

'But I had to take back the old ones.'

<sup>8</sup> The syntax of als végls is odd in this sentence. It should be préndar anavùş als végls. The position of the direct object als végls is probably due to the fact that it is stressed.


`In the evening I used to be shattered because this goes up to 2.300 metres or so above sea level.'

95 ugèn quaj. Gljèz fatg faruct but ju dí. 96

must.PRS.1SG 1sG say.INF

'But ... I really loved to do that. I must say that.'

 sùn vagnida pènsjunada scha ... 97 and when.1sG be.prs.1sG PASS.AUX.PTCP.F.SG pension\_off.PTCP.F.SG CORR

zuar òdar tg'ins 98 ju fageva 1sG do.IMPF.1sG although already before head\_of\_district.M.SG or COMP GNR

99 cò atgnamajn ... pala, pala, cuminònza da COP.PRS.3SG here actually 100 sèndas oo oo alaa ragjún.

trail.F.PL out in.DEF.F.SG region

'And ... when I got pensioned off ... as a matter of fact, I had already worked as head of district before, or that one ... is here actually ... for the, for the community of trails in the region.'

101 Ad as da vaj and have.2sg.gnr to have.INF worry.M.SG COMP EXPL PASS.AUX.PRS.SBJV.3SG 102 ... tga las tùt èn ùrdan. mark.PTCP.UNM COMP DEF.F.PL trail.PL COP.PRS.3PL all in order.M.SG

'One has to see to it that they get marked ... that all the trails are in order.'

ıos A lura ... ah, gljèz and then eh DEM.UNM be.PRS.1sG 1sG hold.1sG 1sG now twenty year.M.PL 'And then ... ah, this, I am like this, I think now ... for twenty years.'

8 Texts


'Well, already before, when I cared for the trails ... I already was head of district.'

106 Ad ùssa òni partju ajn quaj, al cantún and now have.PRS.3PL.3PL divide.PTCP.UNM in DEM.UNM DEF.M.SG canton circa trènta da quèls quèls 107 have.prs.3sG about thirty of DEM.M.PL head\_of\_district.PL DEM.M.PL 108 èn parti ajn ajn ragjúns, ad ju a PASS.AUX.PRS.3PL divide.PTCP.M.PL in in region.F.PL and 1SG have.PRS.1SG val Tujétsch a 109 la

DEF.F.SG valley PN and PN

`And now they have divided that, the canton has about thirty of these heads of district, these are divided into regions, and I have the Tujetsch valley and Mustér.'

110 Usa quèst' jamna vau gròndas turas ... da ... da fatg now DEM.F.SG week have.PRS.1SG.1SG do.PTCP.UNM big.F.PL tour.PL of 111 sis sjat uras

six seven hour.F.PL yes almost every day.M.SG

'Now this week I did long tours ... of ... of six seven hours ... yes, almost every day.'

 quaj fö adina da mé ... plașchaj. 112 A and DEM.UNM make.PRS.3SG always DAT 1SG pleasure.M.SG

And this is always a ... pleasure for me. '

113 Míu aun ér: «Tgé té pùs!» frá șchèva POSS.1SG.M.SG brother say.IMPF.3SG still yesterday what 2SG can.PRS.2SG

'My brother said not later than yesterday: «[Incredible that you still] have the strength [to do that]!»'

<sup>9</sup> Musté is the Standard Sursilvan form for Tuatschin Mustajr.


`And then I said [that] they had done a tour that week, but that he sees to it that this be ... .'


'In order to go, if one always goes [there] ..., this is ... no problem at all.'

119 Na, ju fétsch faruct ugèn quaj. no 1sG do.PRS.1sG crazily gladly DEM.UNM

`No, I really love to do that.'


'And so, yes ... if I can I will go on doing [it] ... because ... this has actually happened ... so because they ... the municipalities, I saw that here and in Mustér, the municipalities would simply let them go into decline, they wouldn't do anything that had been done once."

125 【 vignéva bitga ... dau culur, i EXPL PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG NEG give.PTCP.UNM colour.F.SG EXPL bitga mirau da las 126 vignéva PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG NEG look.PTCP.UNM of DEF.F.PL trail.PL

'They wouldn't ... give colour [to the signposts], they wouldn't care for the trails.'


'And then I ... said once, when we had a meeting:'

129 «Atgnamajn stuèssaṣ Vus ... èssar actually - must.COND.2PL 2PL 2PL - COP.INF more rigorous.M.PL

'Actually you ... should be more rigorous.'

130 Laṣ DEF.F.PL municipality.PL let.PRS.3PL go.INF all in decadence.F.SG

'The municipalities let everything go into decline.'


exactly so

'And somehow the result of this was that the heads of district have the authority to tell the municipalities what they have to do; so they do this not only at the canton and at the B.A.W. , that's how it is.'


'And within a certain time limit they must have done it or otherwise the canton would intervene.'

 138 and 1PL have.PRS.1PL DEF.F.SG possibility COMP COMP Say.INF

<sup>10</sup>Bündner Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Wanderwege

'And we have ... the possibility to ... to say ... '

139 squetsch = ... [f3] gè éxáct, éxáct, gè ... COMP make.INF pressure.M.SG

'[PhM] to put pressure ... [f3] yes exactly, exactly, yes ... '

140 [PhM] sin, sin las vischnauncas, gie. on on DEF.F.PL municipality yes

[PhM] on, on the municipalities, yes.'

141 [f3] Gè, gè. A vischnauncas, yes yes and then - 1PL 1PL tell.PRS.1PL DEF.DAT.PL municipality.PL

142

send.PRS.1PL but nevertheless a 143 nùm.

have.PRS.3sG name.M.sG

'[f3] Yes, yes. And then we tell it to the municipalities, but we nevertheless send «a report of damages» as this is called.'

144 Di B.A.Waa quaj vòi di cantún. A DEF.DAT.SG B.A.W. and DEM.UNM go.PRS.3SG.EXPL DEF.DAT.SG canton.M and 145 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | a jèda i then in tòcan lu a 146 è. vus da ... vaj quaj COP.PRS.3SG until then and then have.PRS.2PL 2PL COMP have.INF DEM.UNM 147 - ajn ... ajn ùrdan, lu sezes squétsch. in in order.M.SG and otherwise make.PRS.3PL.3PL then self.M.PL pressure

'To the B.A.W., and then it goes to the canton. And the ... in ... in a certain time ... and the ... once it is, until then and then you have to ... have this ... all right, and otherwise they put pressure themselves.'

 è 148 A quaj al mégljar tg'o savju and DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG best COMP have.PRS.3SG can.PTCP.UNM schabagè. 149

happen.INF

And this is the best that could have happened.'

<sup>11</sup>Said in Standard German.


 dá cul pal. 152

give.INF with.DEF.M.SG post

'But in fact, I always say that a woman must always hit with a post.'

153 Pugns sén majsa fist.M.PL on table.F.SG two.F.PL time.PL still something

"The fists on the table at least twice or even more."

bé, l' l' 154 Ouaj crajs DEM.UNM believe.PRS.2SG.GNR NEG DEF.F.SG beginning when 1sG have.PRS.1SG

155 quaj, èri, èri da

take on.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL of 156 quèls fèmna sapi fá da DEM.M.PL REL | probably COMP INDEF.F.SG woman can.PRS.SBJV.3SG do.INF of quaj. 157

DEM.UNM

"This you don't believe, at the beginning when I took on this job, there were, there were some men who ... [would say] that a woman is not able to do that.'

158 Gèggrat yes exactly so

159 adina ... vulju fá obligazjun a finju, always want.PTCP.UNM do.INF POSS.1SG.F.SG obligation and finish.PTCP.UNM

160 a tschèls dajan è fá. and DEM.M.PL must.PRS.3PL also do.INF

'Yes, exactly like that. But I, a person who likes nature, and I have always ... wanted to meet my obligations, and the other people should also do [the same].'

halt ... da 161 Anqual jèda ... drùvi dí. some time.F.SG must.PRS.3SG.EXPL just comp say.INF

'It is sometimes ... just necessary ... to say [it].'

<sup>12</sup> Mataj means 'probably'; in this context, it is used ironically in the sense of 'impossibly'.

### 8.2 Ôrd mia véta

Out of my life (Tuatschín, Ruèras, m1, aged 81) Recorded 2016/08/25 in Sedrun Duration 6'

162 Nus fièvan al al al and pur, ad ju vès ugèn ampríu 1PL do.IMPF.1PL DEF.M.SG farmer and 1sG have.coND.1SG gladly learn.PTCP.UNM

163 da majstar, of joiner.M.SG joiner.M.SG only carpenter.M.SG

'We were farmers, and I would have liked to become a joiner, joiner, [or] only ... carpenter.'


'I wanted to become a joiner, I would have had the gift to [do it], or I would have had the desire.'


two.F.PL sister.PL and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.1SG 1SG boy.M.SG alone.M.SG

'And I was, had ... a boy, a brother had an accident when I was eight months old, in the Val Milá, in the rocks, and in addition I had two sisters, hence I was the only boy.'

170 Api al plé baut èr' bap ... èr, aj and DEF.M.SG father.M.SG COP.IMPF.3SG more early COP.IMPF.3SG EXPL tgi fijèv' fijèv' 171 fagljét al al pur. DEF.M.SG SON.M.SG.DIM REL do.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG farmer

And my father ... was, in earlier days it was the youngest son who worked as a farmer.'

8 Texts

172 ์ไ bab sé pr mè: and then have.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG father say.PTCP.UNM up for 1sG

'And then my father said to me:'


«Yes, this would be really great, but I also could earn a living by being a farmer.»

Api șaj stau finju par mè. 175 and be.pRS.3sG.EXPL COP.PTCP.UNM finish.PTCP.UNM for 1sG

'And that was it.'

al 176 Ju a fatg pur, a finju. 1SG have.1SG do.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG farmer and finish.PTCP.UNM

'I became a farmer, and that's the end of the story.'

 ό bégja dau discusjun. 177 Quaj DEM.UNM have.PRS.3SG NEG give.PTCP.UNM discussion.M.SG

'There was no discussion'


ill.M.PL

'And so I have always been a farmer, and ... got married, and had four children, a boy and three ... girls, and these are all, learned a profession, three are learning to become a nurse.'

183 Ina ad ò one.F.SG study.PRS.3SG in in PN ... Heim13 surpríu in da duatschían, 184 take\_over.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG | home.M.SG of | home.M.SG of two\_hundred 185 fatg scùlas vinavaun ... stada in have.PRS.3SG make.PTCP.UNM school.F.PL further 186 téc plé pardèrta tgé quaj tgu tgu èra.

bit more clever.F.SG than DEM.UNM REL.1SG COP.IMPF.1SG

'One studies ... in in Winterthur and has, and has taken over a ... home of ... a home of two hundred, kept going to school ... was a little bit cleverer than I was.'

dùna ... . ... ... ad tina 187 A A la and DEF.F.SG woman COP.IMPF.3SG clean.ADJ.UNM and one.F.SG REL 188 luvrau stédi. have.PRS.3SG work.PTCP.UNM diligent.ADJ.UNM

`And my wife was very ... and one who always worked hard.'

189 A A cò and well one.F.SG stay.PRS.3SG in PN and one.F.SG COP.PRS.3SG here 190 fégl è è có. 

by.DEF.M.SG doctor DEF.M.SG son COP.PRS.3SG also here

'And ... well, one lives in Bern, and another stays here with the doctor, and my son is also here.'

191 A ... da gjuvantétgna, né da buéts, tg ' nuș èran buéts and of youth.F.SG or of boy.M.PL REL 1PL COP.IMPF.1PL boy.M.PL 192 savės ju raquintá ina. can.cond.1sG 1sG tell.INF one.F.SG

'And of my youth, or of our boyhood, when we were boys ... I could tell a [story].'

193 | Tiar nus ... la by 1PL DEF.F.SG Sunday after vesper.F.PL go.IMPF.1SG 1SG up up 194 a balpalùta. main\_road.F.SG and give.IMPF.1PL "balpaluta".F.SG

<sup>13</sup> Heim, German for Romansh asil.

'On Sundays, after having celebrated vespers, we would go up to the main road … and play «balpalùta».'

*Èr'* cop.impf.3sg *in* def.m.sg *bal,* ball *a* and *quaj* dem.unm *dèv'* give.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *cun* with *in* def.m.sg *fist,* stick 195 *a* and *dèvan* give.impf.1pl *quaj* dem.unm *ála* in.def.f.sg *landstròs, ̱* main\_road.f.sg *quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg 196 *fòrsa in autò gl antiar sjantarmjadṣ-dé, áutar nuét.* 197

maybe indef.m.sg car def.m.sg whole afternoon.m.sg other.m.g. nothing

'[This] was a ball, and you played it with a stick, and we played this on the main road, at that time only one car would pass by during the whole afternoon, nothing else.'

*La* def.f.sg *landstròs, ̱* landstròs *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *hauptstròs. ̱ 14* main\_road.f.sg 198

'The «landstròs», this is the «hauptstròs».'

*Ju* 1sg *réjṣda* speak.1sg *da* of *Tujétsch,* pn *nias,* poss.1pl.m.sg *gè.* yes 199

'I am speaking the dialect of Tujetsch, ours, yes.'

*Da* of *quèls* dem.m.pl *plajds<sup>15</sup> ,* word.pl *i* expl *èra* cop.impf.3sg *da* of *quèls* dem.m.pl *plajds,* word.pl *ah,* eh *fétg-fétg* red~very 200

*déra...[saj],* widespread.m.pl *a* and *è* also *autar,* other.adj.unm *c'* when *nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *ah* eh *a* subord 201

*fá* make.inf *fajn* hay.m.sg *ni* or *uschéja* so *… ṣchèva* say.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *mùm'* mother *adina:* always 202

'Such words, precisely such words, eh, very widespread ones, and also others, when we went and made hay or so … my mother would always say:'

*«Vajas* have.imp.2pl *quitau* worry.m.sg *vuṣ* 2pl *majṣ* go.prs.2pl *ṣul'* over.def.f.sg *landstròs* main\_way *òrd* out *via.* way.f.sg 203

'Be careful going out over the «landstròs».'

<sup>14</sup>«Landstròs» and «hauptstròs» are two Germanisms which are not in use any more, at least among younger people. The «landstròs» is now called *Via Alpsu*, and the «hauptstròs» *stradún* (m.).

<sup>15</sup>*Da quèls plajds* replaces an unintelligible part of the text.


'Be careful when you cross the railway line, the railway line.'

*Al* def.m.sg *lungatg* language *èra* cop.impf.3sg *uschéja.* so 206

'The language was like this.'

[*PhM*] *Cun* with *biars* many.m.pl *plaids* word.pl *tudestgs.* German.pl 207

'[PhM] With many German words.'

[*m1*] *Gè,* yes *strmantúṣ ̩* terrible.adj.unm *bjè.* many *Strmantúṣ ̩* terrible.adj.unm *bjè.* many 208

'[m1] Yes, too many. Too many.'

*Òz* today *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg.expl *quaj* dem.unm *ah,* eh *òz* today *ṣèni* cop.prs.3pl.3pl *schòn* in\_fact *autar,* different 209

*òz* today *ṣèn* cop.prs.3pl *aj* expl *... la* def.f.sg *stradún.* street.m.sg.augm 210

'Nowadays this is, eh, as a matter of fact they are different, nowadays they are [called] ... the «big street».' <sup>18</sup>

*Òz* today *ṣaj* cop.prs.3sg.expl *al* def.m.sg *al* def.m.sg *Furka* pn *né* or *al* def.m.sg *… la* def.f.sg *ban<sup>19</sup>* train 211 *né* right *scù* as *i* expl *végn* pass.aux.prs.3sg *raṣdau* speak.ptcp.unm *òz* today *sén* on *tudèstg.* German.m.sg 212

'Today it is the Furka or the … the *ban* 'train', as nowadays it is called in German.' (i.e the Matterhorn-Gotthard-Bahn)

<sup>17</sup>*Via* is an old synonym of *vi* 'over'.

<sup>17</sup>*Zug* is the German word for *trèn* 'train'.

<sup>18</sup>*Stradún* is masculine; maybe the speaker has been mislead by the fact that *strada* 'street' or *via* 'way' are feminine.

<sup>19</sup>*Ban* is another German word (*Bahn*) for 'train'.

### 8 Texts

 sùn maridaus 213 Sjantar ... tgu staus SUBORD.1SG be.PRS.1SG PASS.AUX.PTCP.M.SG marry.PTCP.M.SG after ju éba fatg al 214 nus, va pur have.PRS.1PL 1PL have.PRS.1SG 1SG precisely do.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG farmer 215 aun gè avaun da right have.PRS.1PL already yes before sUBORD get\_married.INF èri ... paucs 216 raps. EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL | little.M.PL money.PL

After ... I got married, we have, I worked as a farmer ... right? ... before we got

married ... we already had ... we hadn't much money'


219 vèvans ... in ájndarli, quaj dèvi par have.IMPF.1PL.1PL INDEF.M.SG one\_decilitre DEM.UNM give.IMPF.3SG.EXPL for 220 tschuncònta raps.

fifty cent.M.PL

'During war we used to go up to the restaurant ... on Sunday afternoon ... with fifty cents and we had ... one decilitre of wine, this would cost fifty cents.'

221 Quaj dėvi par tschuncònta raps. DEM.UNM give.IMPF.3SG.EXPL for fifty cent.M.PL

'This would cost fifty cents.'


'And ah we used to go skiing, with the kind of skis we had [at that time], in fact I would go with skis made from a barrel ... and I would tie ... tie a shoe on it.'

225 Albsú and after

226 trèn, a with.DEF.M.SG train and DEM.UNM cost.IMPF.3SG one.M.SG franc COMP go.INF sédòra. 227

up

'And after this, if one went, one would go up to the Alpsu [pass] by train and this cost one franc ... to go up there.'


And we had to be ... very well-behaved during the week ... so that my father would give [us] one and a half francs.'

	- cent.M.PL

After that we could, in addition, buy a chocolate for forty cents.'

ad è. 232 Also uschéja șè quaj vagnú qu' well so be.prs.3sg dem.unm come.ptcp.unm and be.prs.3sg dem.unm è 233 è stau bi Ou' stau be.prs.3g cop.pTcp.unm nice.ADJ.unm dem.unm be.prs.3g cop.pTcp.unm

bi. วาง

nice.ADJ.UNM

'Well, that's how it happened, and was, this was nice. This was nice.'

235 Tùts all.M.PL must.IMPF.3PL save.INF everyone have.IMPF.1PL no.M.PL - rich.PL

'Everyone had to save. Absolutely everyone. We had no ... rich people.'


'All poor. All poor. All small farmers, and they had to control every penny. '

<sup>20</sup> Detschi is an old form; the modern form of the subjunctive of dá 'give' is dèti.


'And nice … our youth, we then had, we had a nicer [youth] than those of nowadays.'


'This was a way of living, this was poverty. We have experienced poverty. You too ... experienced poverty.'


'I know, we lived with the, with the … in, in the same house with the, with my uncle, with a brother of my father.'


'And there was only one corridor. And this corridor belonged to both [families].'

*In* one.m.sg *èra* cop.impf.3sg *da* of *quèla* dem.f.sg *famiglja,* family *ad* and *in* one.m.sg *da* of *tschèla.* dem.f.sg 248

'One belonged to this family, and one to the other.'

*A* and *quaj* dem.unm *la* def.f.sg *damaun* morning *cu* when *i* expl *èra* be.impf.3sg *da* to *da* to *lavá,* get\_up.inf 249 *la* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *pétgáva* knock.impf.3sg *sé* up *cul* with.def.m.sg *mòni-scúa* broomstick *[par* subord *clumá* call.inf 250

251 nus], fijèva lavá nus ... tschèla ònda Tina 1PL make.IMPF.3SG get\_up.INF 1PL | DEM.F.SG DEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG aunt PN 252 era ... ad uschéja mava quaj atrás.

also and so go.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM through

'And so in the morning, when we had to to get up, my mother knocked with the broomstick [in order to call us], made us get up ... the other the, aunt Tina also ... and that's the way things happened.'


'The, the ... and then we would go, yes, we had to ... go to school, this was ... very simple with the ... books under the arm, not even a bag.'

256 Lu grang vev' tèscha. ins, vèvans ina then not\_even have.IMPF.3SG GNR have.IMPF.1PL.1PL INDEF.F.SG bag

'At that time one hadn't, we didn't even have a bag.'


'And during war ... my father and my uncle had ... the two brothers used to chatter together in the «gang», in ... the corridor.'

a l'an Ah, sur da l' 260 Nuș șchèvan ajn gang. ujara. 1PL say.IMPF.1PL on «gang».M.SG ah over of INDEF.F.SG war

'We used to say «ajn gang». Ah, about the war.'

<sup>21</sup> Gang is the German word for 'corridor', and zulè is the Romansh one.

### 8 Texts


'And they stayed for hours and hours speaking about the, about the war, about what had maybe … happened a fortnight before.'

*Partgé* because *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nagíns* no.m.pl *talafòns,* phone.pl *nagín* no.m.sg *rádjò,* radio *nuét.* nothing 264

'Because we had no phones, no radio, nothing.'


'I don't know where my parents had the news from, the two fathers took them, there was in Rueras, there was [only] one who had a radio.'

Figure 8.1: The village of Rueras


'Only one had a radio. And it was my father who was the first one to have a radio.'

270 vèva schi gròn 3SG.M have.IMPF.3SG so big.M.SG pleasure DEM.M.SG almost go.IMPF.3SG 271 ajn cul rádjó. tgau ajl into with.DEF.M.SG head in.DEF.M.SG radio

'He had such great pleasure, he almost would go into the radio with his head.'

272 A sjantar, gè, va ju ... șe bap lu and after mòrts. tgu vèva ... mù vèntgadús oòns. 273 die.PTCP.M.SG when.REL.1SG have.IMPF.3SG only twenty-two year.M.PL

`And after that, yes, I had ... my father then died when I was ... only 22 years old.

274 lu dus be.PRS.1SG then marry.PTCP.M.SG two.M.PL year.PL later and 1sG 275 el vèva maj know.IMPF.1sG 3sg.M have.IMPF.3sG never let.PTCP.UNM out of hand.M.SG DAT mé bjè. 276

1sg much

'I then got married two years later. And ... and I knew, he had never let me be really responsible [for the farm].'


'And this had been a difficult moment, at age sixty-nine. He'd had an ... embolism, yes ... yes.

### 8 Texts

	- farmer.PL

'And since then I have always worked as a farmer, but I've never been ... one of the best farmers.'


And had the greatest pleasure ... to take over bricklayers' or joiners' jobs, and I did more often that [kind of work.]'


say.PRS.1sG.1sG DEM.UNM be.PRS.1sG 1sG never COP.PTCP.M.SG

'But then I also worked as a farmer, and did it also, also had pleasure in this and that, but [I wasn't] an inveterate farmer as we say ... really ... this I have, this I say, this I have never been.'


'But that is nice, I then had ... stopped working as a farmer when I was ... fifty years old.'

293 A sjantar surpríu acòrds adin-adina. and after take over.PTCP.UNM piecework.M.PL RED~always

And afterwards [I] took over piecework, always.'


'For the avalanche barriers, or for the forests, or for the the ... for the, the joining of properties I had put all the boundary stones, and this had been hard work and and and work I was pleased to do ... and it has indeed been strenuous but ... [I] earned a lot of money.'


'And then ... when this happened and ... and [] then dared to build a house with three apartments, in 1970, and so I earned an amount of money that I had never seen [in my life].'

304 Aun taunts raps. Qu' Qu' ebalu, lu, lu safj]

still so\_much.M.PL cent.PL DEM.UNM just then then COP.PRS.3SG.EXPL

ju. 305 -

go.pTCP.UNM

Imagine so much money. That's the way it happened.'

### 8 Texts

*Avaun* before *èrans* cop.impf.1pl.1pl *schi* so *anavù̱s* backward *a* and *tùtajnína* suddenly *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm 306 *vagnú* come.ptcp.unm *uschéja.* so *A* and *lu* then *va* have.prs.1sg *ju,* 1sg *va* have.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *èra* also *lò* there 307 *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *vinavaun,* forward *puspè* again *cun* with *… luvrau* work.ptcp.unm *fétg,* much *la* def.f.sg *dùna* woman 308 *ò* have.prs.3sg *lu* then *è* also *luvrau* work.ptcp.unm *cun* with *… fétg,* much *èla* 3sg.f *è* cop.f.sg *ina* indef.f.sg 309 *simpla* simple *fèmna,* woman *a* and *luvrau* work.ptcp.unm *fétg.* much 310

'Before we were so backward, and suddenly it happened this way. And in this situation I went on, again with, working hard, my wife also contributed … a lot, she is a simple woman, worked hard.'

### **8.3 Al tat**

**My grandfather** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, m4, aged 68) Recorded 2017/03/13 in Sadrún Duration 15'20"

*Gè,* yes *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *atgnamajn* actually *príu,* take.ptcp.unm *príu* take.ptcp.unm *avaun* before *da* comp 311 *préndar* take.inf *ah,* eh *zatgéj* something *històrjas* story.f.pl *cò* here *da* of *quaj* dem.unm *ah* eh *détgas* legend.f.pl *a* and 312 *praulaṣ* fairy\_tale.f.pl *ábar* but *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *lu* then *vju* see.ptcp.unm *ajn* in *gé̱néral* general *cò,* here 313 *vau príu quaj cùdisch cò da la mütòlògía<sup>22</sup>* 314

have.prs.1sg.1sg take.ptcp.unm dem.m.sg book here of def.f.sg *,* mythology

*a* and *quaj* dem.unm *ajn* in *gé̱néral* general *cuértaṣ.* short.f.pl 315

'Actually, I had planned to take, eh, some stories here from these legends and fairy tales, I then saw [that] generally here [i.e. in the book], I took this book of mythology, but these [are] in general short ones.'

<sup>22</sup>The narrator refers to Büchli (1966), which is in sight and at which he was pointing.

*Lu* then *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sadacidjus* refl.decide.ptcp.m.sg *da* comp *… raṣdá* talk.inf *in* indef.m.sg *pau* little 316 *ṣur da la ... da mi' ufaunza, a lu cunzún ah c' ju* 317

over of def.f.sg of poss.1sg.f.sg childhood and then especially eh when 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *stauṣ* be.ptcp.m.sg *anzjaman* together *cul* with.def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *ajn* up *Pardatsch.* pn 318

'Then I decided to ... talk a bit about ... my childhood, and then especially when I was together with my grandfather up in Pardatsch.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *pia* thus *al* def.m.sg *... al* def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *da* of *la* def.f.sg *vart* side *da* of 319 *la mùma.* 320

def.f.sg mother

'So that is ... my grandfather from my mother's side.'

*Èl* 3sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *nùm* name *pn,* pn *èl* 3sg.m *è* be.prs.3sg *naschjus* born.ptcp.m.sg *méli* thousand *ad* and 321

*òtgtschian* eight\_hundred *òtgòntasjat,* eighty-seven *a* and *mòrts* die.ptcp.m.sg *sin* on *méli* thousand *a* and <sup>322</sup> *…*

*nùvtschian* nine\_hundred *sissòntasjat,* sixty-seven *pia* therefore *vagnúṣ* become.ptcp.m.sg *da* at *quèla,* dem.f.sg *da* at 323

*quèlṣ* dem.m.pl *òns* year.pl *schòn* already *... òtgònt'* eighty *òns.* year.m.pl 324

'His name was pn, he was born 1887 and died 1967, so he was at that time already ... eighty years old.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *ina* indef.f.sg *... fétg* very *grònda* big *famiglja,* family *èlṣ* 3pl.m 325 *òn* have.prs.3pl *gju* have.ptcp.unm *indiṣch* eleven *ufauns,* child.m.pl *in* one.m.sg *è* be.prs.3sg 326 *mòrts,* die.ptcp.m.sg *ah,* eh *tga* subord *'l* 3sg.m *vèva* have.impf.3sg *circa* about *curònta* forty *curòntatschun* forty-five 327 *ònṣ* year.m.pl *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *gju* have.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *accidèn* accident *ajnta* up *Nalbṣ,* pn 328 *èra* cop.impf.3sg *vida* prog *... piná* fell.inf *lèna,* wood.coll *a* and *survagnú* get.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *pégn,* spruce 329 *schmacau èl.* 330

squash.ptcp.unm 3sg.m "This was a ... very big family, they had eleven children, one died, eh, when he was around forty, forty-five years old, he had an accident in Nalps, he was cutting trees and got a spruce, squashed him.'

331 Als da Surajn òn bjè pupira, gju quèls DEF.M.PL of PN 332 spargnè, a 

save.IMPF.3PL also terrible.ADJ.UNM must.IMPF.3PL save.INF and 1sG dals aucs, 333 in purèssar plétost

know.prs.1sg from DEF.M.PL DEM.M.PL have.IMPF.3PL INDEF.M.SG farm 334

small what can.IMPF.3PL 3PL.M have.INF ten fifteen animal.M.PL big.PL

335 apillu a tga tga vèvan and then besides goat.F.PL know.PRS.1SG.1SG COMP have.IMPF.3PL and 336 pòrs

pig.M.PL and hen.F.PL and of DEM.UNM and live.IMPF.3PL then rather

dal purèssar. 337 of.DEF.M.SG farming

> 'Those relatives who lived in Surrein were very poor, they would save as much as they could, they had to save, and ... I know from my uncles, they had a rather ... small farm, what could they have, maybe ten, fifteen big animals and then also goats I know they had, and ... pigs and hens and such things, and lived rather on farming.'

a mava' 338 A zatgéj and something go.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL uncle.PL go.IMPF.3PL then also something ... ád uáut. 339

to forest.M.SG

`And sometimes my uncles would also go sometimes ... to the forest.'


Fürca-Albsù.

PN

'But it was in order to fell trees, especially in most cases to fell trees or to remove snow from time to time, it was a time when they would go up to the pass, they used to go up to remove snow for the ... Furka-Alpsu railway line.'

345 A lu ... tiar mè sè quaj ussuschéa, ju and then by 1sg cop.prs.3sG DEM.UNM COP.PTCP.UNM exactly so 1sG 346 jus ah ... a scùlèta. be.IMPF.1SG go.PTCP.M.SG eh to nursery\_school.F.SG

And then with me it was exactly like this; I had gone to nursery school.

plașchéva nuéta pròpi da mé. 347 A quaj and DEM.UNM please.IMPF.3SG NEG really DAT 1SG

'And I really didn't like that.'

cò coina d sòra tg'instruéva, 348 Nuș vèvan qu' 1PL have.IMPF.1PL here INDEF.F.SG Sister REL teach.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM

circa, coò visaví circa tschuncònt' ufauns. 349 COP.IMPF.3SG around here in\_front around fifty child.M.PL

'Here we had a Sister who used to teach around, right in front of here, around fifty children.'

èra munièssa da Quaj ina 350 DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG NUN from PN DEF.F.SG Sister PN

351 quèla ở dau bjè scùlèta CO. DEM.F.SG have.PRS.3SG give.PTCP.UNM many year.M.PL nursery\_school.F.SG here

"That was a nun from Glion, Sister Paulina, she taught for many years at the nursery school here.'

Ad i èr' è tg' tg' ins mava 352 a and EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG also NEG usage.M.SG COMP GNR go.IMPF.3SG to scùlèta. રાષ્ટ્ર

nursery\_school.F.SG

'And it was not usual that one attended nursery school.'

354 Alsò qu' èra fòrs' ina tjarza tga mava well DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG maybe INDEF.F.SG third REL go.IMPF.3SG to scùlèta. ട്ടട

nursery school.F.SG

'Well, it was maybe one third that would attend nursery school.'

### 8 Texts


indef.m.sg day

'I went [to nursery school] for a certain time and I didn't like it at all and one day I said to my mother:'


'I'll stop going to nursery school, I can't stand it any longer.'


'Then she said: «You could go up to Pardatsch with your grandfather.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *quèla* dem.f.sg *val,* valley *gjù* down *cò* here *la* def.f.sg *val* valley *Nalbṣ* pn *vidajn,* up\_into 363

*in* indef.m.sg *majṣès<sup>23</sup>* assembly\_of\_houses *ajnamiaẕ* in\_middle *c'* rel *ò* have.prs.3sg *nùm* name.m.sg 364 *Pardatsch.* 365

'This is the valley down here, into the Nalps valley, a *majṣés*.'

*Lu* then *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sadacidjus* refl.decide.ptcp.m.sg *dad* comp *í,* go.inf *gè* yes *gè* yes *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg 366 *tartgau, ju sùn adina staus plétòsṯ al tüp da* 367

always

think.ptcp.unm 1sg be.prs.1sg *la* def.f.sg *… natira.* nature 368

> 'Then I decided to go, yes, yes, I thought I had always been rather someone who likes nature.'

cop.ptcp.m.sg

rather

def.m.sg

fellow

of

pn

<sup>23</sup>A *majṣès*, German *Maiensäss*, is an assembly of houses and meadows in the mountains used during the cattle grazing period.

369 Sùnd jus ah gjù Surajn a aun stau be.PRS.1SG go.PTCP.M.SG eh down PN são p ... da fá to do.INF DEF.F.PL last.PL work.PL like put.INF dung.F.SG plough.INF and of 371 quaj, bigja grat schi sémpal, DEM.UNM DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG NEG just so easy.ADJ.UNM and after

372 be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL - up DEM.UNM PN

'I went eh down to Surrein and there we still had ... to do the last work, like dunging, ploughing and this sort of thing, this was not exactly that simple, and after that we went up to Pardatsch.'

згза Ísland vidajn, quaj go.INF up.in DEM.UNM lead.IMPF.3SG in\_addition INDEF.F.SG INDEF.F.SG road 374 bad 375 al stau be.prs.3sg cop.pTcp.unm def.m.sg time fifty-six 1sG have.IMPF.1sG 376 sis dòns six year.M.PL when.REL | COP.IMPF.3PL PROG prepare.INF DEF.F.SG road SUBORD 377 go.INF up PN SUBORD build.INF DEF.M.SG wall.M.SG of reservoir.F.SG

'[In order to] go up, there led a ... a bad road, but they were just working, that was ... in 1956, I was six years old when they were preparing the road in order to

go to Nalps to build the wall of the reservoir.'


383 clutgè-basèlgja. tower.M.SG-church.F.SG 'Eh … Nalps has always been visited as an assembly of houses and as pastures, there are furthermore two or three interesting places up there, in Burganez, this is a little bit more down the valley, there they removed, as they say, the stones used to build the church tower [of Sedrun].'

Figure 8.2: The church of Sedrun with its high tower


'[With] these blocks they went up, cut [them] out, and brought them down with oxen until here in Sedrun.'


'And a little bit more uphill, a little bit on the other side, there is almost the only limestone rock that can be found in the Tujetsch valley.'

389 Lò there build.IMPF.3PL.3PL down limestone.F.SG and burn.IMPF.3PL immediately èla. 390

3SG.F

'There they would mine limestone and burn it immediately'.'


394 è mirá quaj. where GNR can.PRS.3SG also see.INF DEM.UNM

'And there were also, there still are some remnants there where one can go and see; PN also put some posters there which show where on the way one can have a look at this."


now NEG just present thousand and six hundred and something

And then Pardatsch ... a bit more uphill here in direction of Tgom ... there is a cave, it would indeed be interesting if one knew, this is dated, I ... don't have it exactly in mind, sixteen hundred something.'

399 A A lò pratjándani tga òra ... matalts. and there pretend.PRS.3PL.3PL COMP recover.IMPF.3PL out - metal.M.PL

And there they pretend that they recovered metals.'

<sup>24</sup>The narrator thinks that tschentau 'put' would fit better than fatg.


high.F.SG

'And there is a cave, oh how big may it be ..., one and a half metres ... wide, and maybe ... two metres high.'

l' sé la, anada cur'i 403 Daváuntiar saj in\_front COP.PRS.3SG.EXPL up DEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG year when 3PL

antschiat, ad ad lins vèz ' aun quaj, 404 have.prs.3pl begin.pTCP.UNM and GNR see.pRS.3sG still DEM.UNM

405 bagagjávani build.IMPF.3PL.3PL down - with eh much manual.ADV

'In front of it there is, eh, the year when they started, one can still see [that] they used to mine this with, ah, a lot manually.'


408 bétg.

NEG

'One still can see that chisels or power drills had been used; whether they would blow up I don't know.'


can.PRS.3SG GNR go.INF into of DEM.F.SG and REFL.divide.PRS.3SG.EXPL

412 ajn duas.

go.PRS.3SG.EXPL in two.F

'And this cave - [judging from] where I have been into it - one can go into it about 25 metres, and then it splits into two.'

<sup>25</sup> san ins is Standard Sursilvan for sò ins.

*Ah,* eh *tgé* what *... prandèvan* take.impf.3pl *pròpi* exactly *òra* out *sa* know.prs.3sg *ins* gnr *bégj'* neg *éxáct,* exact.adj.unm 413

*dí* say.inf *dian* say.prs.3sg *ins* gnr *matalṣ,* metal.m.pl *ábar* but *ò* out *vèza* look.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *insùma* at\_all *bégj* neg 414

*in* indef.m.sg *grép* rock.m.sg *da* of *matal.* metal.m.sg 415

'Ah, what … they really mined one does not know exactly, people say that it is metals, but this rock doesn't look like it contained metals at all.'

	- beat.impf.sbjv.3sg of noon.m.sg in pn

'As for mining, it could well be that the rock changed, that …, the legend says that they were so deep in the cave that they heard the clock strike noon in Rueras.'


'This, one has to doubt, this is probably like what … there still are many such legends.'

*Basta,* enough *ah,* eh *par* subord *vagní* come.inf *cò* here *sén* on *quaj* dem.unm *Pardatsch* pn *al,* def.m.sg *al* def.m.sg 422 *tat vèva aun fatg ina* 423

grandfather have.impf.3sg in\_addition make.ptcp.unm indef.f.sg


### 8 Texts

'Enough, eh, in order to come back to Pardatsch, my grandfather, in addition, had had a cut, he cut his knee, yes, an important cut; before going uphill, eh [he] went to the doctor but this was not eh easy to deal with at the doctor's.'

428 Lèds vèva lu dau zatgéj étg dad DEM.M.SG have.IMPF.3SG then give.PTCP.UNM some ointment.M.SG ATTR 429 úndṣchar ajn a faschas a a cala tata ỏ lu oil.INF in and bandage.F.PL and DEF.F.SG grandmother have.PRS.3SG then 430 aun détg da mé:

still say.PTCP.UNM DAT 1sG

'He had given [him] some ointment to rub in and bandages, and then my grandmother said to me:'


'And you, make sure that your grandfather does it every day, that he takes them off, that he cleans them and puts them on again.'

434 «Gè gè gè quaj ju schòn tga yes yes yes DEM.UNM want.PRS.1SG 1SG of\_course - make\_sure.INF COMP végni fatg.» 435 PASS.AUX.PRS.SBJV.3SG do.PTCP.UNM

'Yes of course, I will make sure that'll be done.'


1SG say.IMPF.1SG sometimes DAT grandfather.M.SG go.PTCP.UNM SO SO SO SEC

'And ... in order to conclude this story, it went in the following way: I said from time to time to my grandfather:'

438 «Té26 .... Vajs èl?» fatg 2sG have.prs.2sg.pol.do.pTcp.unm 3sg.m

'You [sg] ... Did you [pl] do it?'

<sup>26</sup> The narrator makes an error; he said té 'you (sg)' instead of Vus 'you (honorific)', as the following sentence explains.

439 Lu Saschèv' a then say.IMPF.3SG GNR still 2PL DAT - eh DAT grandfather.M.SG and 440 tata adina détg vau Vus, ábar grandmother.F.SG have.PRS.1SG.1SG always say.PTCP.UNM 2PL.POL but 441 dals, méjs gjaniturs ... vajn nus ùssa bégja DAT.DEF.M.PL POSS.1SG.M.PL parent.PL have.PRS.1PL 1PL now NEG ábar i Vus, bjèrs tga ... on 442 détg say.PTCP.UNM 2PL.POL but EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG many.M.PL REL | have.PRS.3PL 443 détg tòcan, gè práctisch adina Vus dals gjaniturs. say.PTCP.UNM until yes practically always 2PL DAT.DEF.M.PL parent.PL

`At that time, one used to say Vus to ... eh, to my grandfather and my grandmother I have always said Vus, but to the, my parents ... we never said Vus, but there were many who have said until, well practically always Vus to their parents.'

«Vuṣ 444 [Lu] vòu détg: lu aun da fá then have.PRS.1sG.1sG say.PTCP.UNM 2PL.POL have.coND.2PL then still to do.INF da la bògns né mirá plaja.» 445 quèls DEM.M.PL bath.PL or look after.INF of DEF.F.SG wound

'[Then] I said: "You should still take a bath or look after the wound.""

è schòn 446 «Gè gè quaj yes yes DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3sG all right good.UNM

"Yes, sure, that's OK."

è 447 Ou' lu ju quèluísa tga ca nus èssan DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG then go.PTCP.UNM DEM\_Way REL REL 1PL be.IMPF.1PL vidòra, ò da Pardatsch, tg' èssan 448 vagní

come.PTCP.M.PL over out return.PTCP.M.PL out of PN CORR be.COND.1PL ajn lò nus staj 449

1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL in there maybe four five five week.F.PL

'This happened in such a way that when we returned down [to Surrein] from Pardatsch, then we had stayed there maybe ... four or five weeks.'

450 Scha vèva 'l fatg schùber nuét. but have.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M do.PTCP.UNM clean.ADJ.UNM nothing

'But he hadn't done anything at all.'

### 8 Texts


"That bandage had contracted, and into the skin, grown into the skin and then he had to go to the doctor.'


'But fortunately his blood was very good, the ... he then hadn't got any complications.'


´Up in Pardatsch we had about ten, as already mentioned ten or fifteen large farm animals, and we had [also] goats and pigs.'


'And my work was, was ... not exactly to do a lot, and what still had to be fed in between, my grandfather would do, and we also had to mind the animals; we would then go up to the south, just by that cave I have mentioned.'

463 Lo èr' ins bjè culs tiars, sèra there COP.IMPF.3SG GNR a lot with.DEF.M.PL animal.PL and | DEF.F.SG evening gjùdòra lèz 464 vagní tat, come.PTCP.M.PL down\_out with 3PL.M and then DEF.M.SG grandfather DEM.M.SG tiar la tschajna, gljèz magari 465 pinava prepare.IMPF.3SG by DEF.F.SG dinner DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG sometimes also tgé cuschinadas èl èl [fagèva], èl 466 léjgar funny.ADJ.UNM what cook.PTCP.F.PL 3SG.M [make.IMPF.3SG] 3SG.M

467 cook.IMPF.3SG NEG bad but ah sometimes make.IMPF 3sG.M really real.M.PL

468 détgas pistracas. real.F.PL mixture.PL

> 'There we were often with the animals, and ... in the evening we would come back with them, and then my grandfather, he would prepare dinner, it was sometimes also funny [to see] what he [cooked], he didn't cook badly, but ah from time to time he would prepare terrible mixtures.'

469 Quaj sch' i dèva rèsts, scha vagnévi lu well if - EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG leftovers.M.PL then PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG.EXPL then rimnau quaj trajs dis api méz 470 sometimes collect.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM two.M.PL three day.PL and put.PTCP.UNM

471 tùt ajn ina ... tùt anzjaman. all in INDEF.F.SG all together

> 'Well, when there were leftovers, they would sometimes be collected for two or three days and then put all together in a ... all together.'

472 A sjantar tschajnas, gljèz, schòn è aun and after dinner.F.PL DEM.UNM DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG really also still

léjgar. 473

funny.ADJ.UNM

'And after dinner, well, this was also funny.'

474 Sjantar tschajna èr, èls after dinner.F.SG go.IMPF.3SG GNR in DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG also 3PL.M 475 èran èra rèligjús, quaj nùndétg.

COP.IMPF.3PL religious.M.PL COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM indescribable.ADJ.UNM

After dinner we would go in, this was also, they were religious, this was indescribable.'

### 8 Texts


'When they entered the barn, because ... at the beginning of spring one had to let the animals into the barn, and then one would enter and then he would say: '

479 ad èl OK now say.PRS.1PL 1PL a\_bit Lord's\_prayer.M.PL and 3sG.M 480 samatév' adina giùdajn.

REFL.put.IMPF.3sG always down\_in

'«OK, now we will say some Lord's prayer» and he would always sit down in [a manger].'


484 Dju» api èra l navèn. God and cor.IMPF.3sG 3sG.M away

'So he would sit in the manger, and ... he on the one side and I on the other side, and so he would say three or four Lord's prayers and a bit later «Holy Mary Mother of God», and then he was gone.'

485 Sadurmantav' ajn. A REFL.fall\_asleep.IMPF.3SG in and then induce.IMPF.1sG 1SG NEG awake 486

3SG.M

'He would fall asleep. And then I wasn't able to wake him up.'

487 sc'in tajs. DEM.M.SG sleep.IMPF.3SG like INDEF.M.SG badger

'He used to sleep like a log.'


'Below was the alpine hut where he would also make cheese, next to it those two cow barns and one must go out and up into the hay barn, and therein was the stiva, the living room, as they used to say, in those majses the room where one slept was called stiva.

494 Ad ju mava lu and 1sG go.IMPF.1sG then up there sleep.INF but eh many night.F.PL parsuls 495 schòn ah ... COP.PTCP.M.SG alone.M.SG up there ha and there have.PRS.1SG.1SG really eh inqual tèma. 496

have.PTCP.UNM some fear.F.SG

'And I used to go up there to sleep, but, eh, many nights I was alone up there, ha, and there I was eh sometimes afraid."

497 Ajn quèla pròblèm èra, èra, and DEF.M.SG problem COP.IMPF.3SG COP.IMPF.3SG in DEM.F.SG age al pròblèm èra las DEF.M.SG problem COP.IMPF.3SG DEF.F.PL Saturday.PL and Sunday.PL

At that age, and the problem was, was, the problem was on Saturdays and Sundays.'


8 Texts

`Or Friday evening, these Italians, there were practically only Italians who worked on the road.'

è grad antschiat 501 Sé Nalps vèvani up PN

502 ètcètara. canteen.F.PL et cetera

In Nalps they had just begun to build canteens and so on."


`On weekends they would come here and have big parties."


REFL.Wake up.PTCP.M.SG REL EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG in one.M.SG or two.M.PL

510 taljánars tga durmévan. Italian.PL REL sleep.IMPF.3PL

> 'Now sometimes they couldn't manage ... to come ... into [the stiva and sleep on hay] and ... we sometimes had those who came or who came into the barn and slept [there], but I happened to wake up there when one or two Italians were sleeping [in my grandfather's bed].'

511 Oh, lu schòn tumju in pau mintgataun. oh then really be afraid.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG little sometimes

'Oh, [I was] really afraid sometimes.'

512 Prquaj tga because SUBORD DEM.UNM when GNR have.IMPF.3SG NEG\_just to mind.INF sch'èr' dé cun quèls, quèls, qu' 513 tiars ins antir animal.M.PL then COP.IMPF.3SG GNR whole.M.SG day with DEM.M.PL DEM.UNM

514 - intarassant da mirá COP.IMPF.3SG also interesting.ADJ.UNM MOD look.INF when 3PL work.IMPF.3PL 515 C' C' C i gjù.

when 3PL build.IMPF.3sG down

'Because when we ... didn't just have to mind the animals, we were with them [the Italian workers] the whole day; it was also interesting to watch [them] when they were working, when they would dismantle [something].'

516 vòu fòrza schòn è survagnú téc out there have.PRS.1sG maybe really also get.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG bit 517 vju desire.F.SG ATTR go.INF for stone.COLL REL.1SG have.PRS.1SG see.PTCP.UNM lògans tg'i vèvan 518 difarènts gjù ad different.M.PL place.PL REL 3PL have.IMPF.3PL blast.PTCP.UNM down and ò cristalas cristalas 519 be.IMPF.3SG come.PTCP.UNM out crystal.F.PL et\_cetera comp DEM.UNM 520 fòrza schòn stau in téc al ... mòtif be.PRS.3SG maybe really COP.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG bit DEF.M.SG - reason o dade lí 521 tgu a antschiat REL.1SG have.PRS.1SG begin.PTCP.UNM COMP go.INF for stone.COLL

'Out there I might have started enjoying looking for stones a bit, when I saw different places where they had blasted [the rocks], and crystals and so forth ... had come out, so maybe this has been a bit the reason why I began to go for stones. '

522 Schabi tga ins hald aun although subord then with six year.M.PL understand.IMPF.3SG GNR just still 523 mèmja pauc a vèva bigja la

too 524 zatgéj. something

Although then, at the age of six, one would understand too little and wouldn't have the ... strength to do something.'

lèz 525 Gè, ah ... cèrtas tat, yes eh certain.F.PL thing.PL DEF.M.SG grandfather DEM.M.SG DEF.M.SG day out a 526 lu go.IMPF.3SG then often for wood.coLL and go.IMPF.3SG then over out DEF.M.SG

### 8 Texts


go.IMPF.3sG and collect.IMPF.3sG DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3sG really funny.ADJ.UNM

cu scarpava gjù urticlas. 529 when 3sG.M pull\_off.IMPF.3sG down nettle.F.PL

'Yes, ah, certain things my grandfather, he would often look for wood the whole day, and he would then go down a little bit and log alder, and when he was coming up ... when he would go and collect it, that was really funny when he pulled off nettles.

530 Quaj a sa fil a par pòrs, trúfals DEM.UNM USE.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M SUBORD give.INF DEF.DAT.PL pig.M.PL potato.M.PL

531 ansjaman par áls pors. together SUBORD give.INF DAT.DEF.M.PL pig.PL

"This he used to give the pigs, potatoes together [with nettles] to give the pigs.'


'Ah, and the nettles, he would always pull them down with the hand, with the hand without |gloves].'

534 Ju tartgava quaj bitga pussajval. 1SG think.IMPF.1SG DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG NEG possible.ADJ.UNM

`I thought that this was not possible.'


'And something ... funny was also when he made fire'

537 vèv' adina vèva 'l dètg avùnda, 3SG.M have.IMPF.3SG always - wood.COLL have.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M much enough bitga fatg 538 ábar ajn général vagnévi òra. but in general PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG.EXPL NEG make.PTCP.UNM out

'He had always ... wood, he had enough, but it was generally not split.'


"These were sometimes such blocks of one or two metres or so."


'This he would throw into [the fire], this was a floor of ... of soil, of course.'


'That is what he used to throw into the fireplace and he used to throw in more every time.'

545 A la sèra bétg ... vagnéva and DEF.F.SG evening for SUBORD burn.PRS.SBJV.3SG NEG | PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG 546 quaj, maun èra DEM.UNM DEM.UNM go.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M in down with.DEF.M.SG hand also

547 vidò còtgla gjú sé without [glove.M.PL] and pull.IMPF.3sG out charcoal.coLL down up

548 plantschju. on.DEF.M.SG floor

> 'And in the evening, to avoid it burning ... was that, there he went into [the fire] with one hand, also without [gloves], and pulled out charcoal from down there up to the floor.'

549 Álsó i èra schòn in spazjal. well EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG really INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG special.ADJ.UNM

'Well, he really was a special person.'


### 8 Texts


556 A... in' autra tgaussa ... tg'è è stauand INDEF.F.SG other.F.SG thing 557 intarassanta, èra, quaj èra ... ajgl unviarn api interesting.F.SG COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG | in.DEF.M.SG winter | and 558 ah ... mávani culs tiars ajnta Nacla, have.IMPF.3PL.3PL eh - go.IMPF.3PL.3PL with.DEF.M.PL animal.PL up PN ... dadajns ... Surajn, fòrza végn minutas è 559 quaj DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG more\_back PN PN vidajn. 560 into

'And ... another thing ... that was interesting was, this was during winter and they had ah ... they used to go with the animals up to Nacla, this is ... farther behind ... Surrein, maybe twenty minutes farther behind.'

èra schòn dau 561 qu' bjè najve ad and DEM.UNM PASS.IMPF.3SG already give.PTCP.UNM much snow and 562 vidò culs bigj' aun vagní tiars. be.IMPF.3PL NEG yet come.PTCP.M.PL down with.DEF.M.PL animal.PL

And there was already a lot of snow and they hadn't come back down with the animals yet.'

vèva 563 Ad ju sa la tata détg: and 1sG know.PRS.1sG DEF.F.SG grandmother have.IMPF.3sG say.PTCP.UNM

'And I know [that] my grandmother had said:'

<sup>27</sup> stau is a performance error for stada.


'Come down here now. Don't sleep up there this evening.»'


'OK. He didn't come down, the other day one of my uncles went up.'


in.def.m.sg barn under\_in

'So the avalanche came down, swept away above of the, of the barn, had swept away everything from above, only … the, in the barn underneath.'

*Al* def.m.sg *tat* grandfather *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *ajn* in *a* and *durméva* sleep.impf.3sg *lò* there *grat* precisely *sc'* like 573 *in* indef.m.sg *tajṣ,* badger *vèv'* have.impf.3sg *udju* hear.ptcp.unm *ṣchùbar-ṣchùbar* red~clean.adj.unm *nuét.* nothing 574

'My grandfather was up there and was sleeping like a log, he hadn't heard anything at all.'

	- away

8 Texts

'And [the avalanche] had also partially swept away of the barns, had swept away, also swept away at the front.'

578 Duas 201 vacas èran gjùṣùt a two.F.PL cow.PL COP.IMPF.3PL down\_under still always hang.PTCP.M.PL at cadajna cul' ... cul' ajssa nùca 579 la cadajn' DEF.F.SG chain with.DEF.F.SG with.DEF.F.SG plank REL.LOC DEF.F.SG chain al udju schùbar nuét. 580 èra. COP.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG grandfather hear.PTCP.UNM clean.ADJ.UNM nothing

'Two cows were still ... hanging from the chain with the ... with the plank where the chain was, and my grandfather hadn't heard anything at all.'

581 A A ... gè quaj ussusché in pèr da quèlas and yes DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG exactly\_so INDEF.M.SG pair of DEM.F.PL

582 raminiscènzas tgu a gju cul tat. memory.PL REL.1SG have.PRS.1SG have.PTCP.UNM with.DEF.M.SG grandfather

'And ... yes, so these are some of the memories I have had with my grandfather.'


'I have never had a problem – he would never have got angry at me or something like that, I have always been very fond of my grandfather."

586 A A quaj pia sias flajvlèzas, and DEM.UNM REL 3SG.M have.IMPF.3SG therefore POSS.3PL.F.PL weakness.PL sùnd ju vagnús séssúra pér ... plé

587 quaj DEM.UNM be.PRS.1SG 1SG come.PTCP.M.SG upon only - more late

`And that he had ... his weaknesses, this I only discovered ... later.'

 lu saravagnús 588 A lu saj dètg and then be.PRS.3SG 3SG.M be.PRS.3SG then REFL.recover.PTCP.M.SG fairly 589 stupèn, èl lu luvrau anzjaman. excellent.ADJ.UNM 3SG.M have.PRS.3SG then work.PTCP.UNM together

<sup>28</sup> Pandí is a performance error for pandidas; furthermore, the narrator would prefer to use farmadas 'tied'.'

And then, he recovered perfectly well, he then worked together [with one of his sons].'

lu In auc cun èl a 500 INDEF.M.SG uncle be.PRS.3SG then COP.PTCP.M.SG with 3SG.M and al 591 fatg pur. make.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG farmer

`Then one of my uncles ... stayed with him and worked as a farmer'

 A lèz fijèva al al pur, aun adin' in 592 and DEM.M.SG make.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG DEF.M.SG farmer still always INDEF.M.SG

593 purèssar, lèz a mava small.M.SG farm

 piná lèna. 594 prepare.INF wood.coLL

And he worked as a farmer, still a little farm, he would then also go to, to the forest [in order to] fell timber.'


597 i è ruclaus. seem.PRS.3SG EXPL also fall.PTCP.M.SG

'And ... and then it happened, ... well when he was about seventy-nine years old, it seems that he also fell down somewhere.'

mèndar a 598 and become.IMPF.3SG worse and worse and induce.IMPF.3PL NEG 3SG.M 599 ál spital 'l né tiar to.DEF.M.SG to.DEF.M.SG hospital want.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M NEG go.INF or to miadis. 600

doctor.M.PL

And ... it became worse and worse and they couldn't induce [him] to go to the, to the hospital he didn't want to go, nor to the doctors.'

in' 601 Ad ju sa ju in' and 1sG know.PRS.1sG one.F.SG time down in PN know.1sg 1sg one.F.SG


'And I know once in the Cadruvi square that he had once come up [from the church], he looked terrible.'

	- have.impf.3sg 3sg.m break.ptcp.unm indef.m.sg thigh

'He was not going well. And my mother then has, they succeeded slowly in having him go [to the hospital] since he had broken a thigh.'

*Api* and *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *trajs* three *jamnas* week.f.pl *cun* with *quaj* dem.m.sg *… calum* thigh *antù̱rn,* around *a* and *lu* then 607 *ò 'l stju í ál spital.* 608

have.prs.3sg 3sg.m must.ptcp.unm go.inf in.def.m.sg hospital.

'And he walked around with this … thigh for three weeks, and then he had to go to the hospital.'

*Quèl'* dem.f.sg *è* cop.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sulèt'* only *jèda* time *tg'* rel *èl* 3sg.m *è* be.prs.3sg *pròpi* really 609 *stauṣ* cop.ptcp.m.sg *ál* in.def.m.sg *spital.* hospital 610

'This is the only time he had really been to hospital.'

*Api* and *òni* have.prs.3pl.3pl *tractau* treat.ptcp.unm *quaj,* dem.unm *a* and *sjantar* after *mava* go.impf.3sg 611 *quaj* dem.unm *bigja* neg *plé* any\_more *gjù* down *Surajn* pn *parquaj* because *tga* subord *la* def.f.sg *tat'* grandmother 612 *èra* cop.impf.3sg *è* also *gè* after\_all *ina* indef.f.sg *véglja,* old *a* and *lu* then *ṣ'* be.prs.3sg *èl* 3sg.m 613

<sup>29</sup>*Cadruvi* is a small square above the church in Sedrun.

*vivjus* live.ptcp.m.sg *sé* up *tiar* by *nus* 1pl *sén* on *Tgès'* house.f.sg *Alva,* white *nus* 1pl *stèvan* live.impf.1pl *cò,* here *viajn* over\_in <sup>614</sup> *... Tgès'* house *Alva,* white *quèla* dem.f.sg *tgèsa* house *grònda* big *òragjùṣùt* out\_down\_under *al* def.m.sg *muséum.* museum 615

'And they treated that, and after this it was not possible any more for him to live in Surrein because my grandmother already was an old woman after all, and then he lived with us in the white house, we lived here, in … the white house, that is the big house underneath the museum.'

Figure 8.3: The Tgès' Alva in Sedrun

*Lu* then *ṣ'* be.prs.3sg *èl* 3sg.m *vivjús* live.ptcp.m.sg *tiar* by *nus.* 1sg *Ábar* but *ah* eh *… quaj* dem.unm 616 *vèva* have.impf.3sg *lu* then *dau* give.ptcp.unm *ina …* indef.f.sg *ina* indef.f.sg *… tussègazjun* poisoning 617 *dal* of.def.m.sg *saun,* blood *sjantar* after *lu* then *ṣ'* be.prs.3sg *èl* 3sg.m *maj* never *vagnús* come.ptcp.m.sg *pròpi* really 618 *nònavaun.* 619

here\_forward

'And then he lived with us. But ah … this led to a … a … blood poisoning, after that he never really recovered from it.'

### 8 Texts

*A* and *lu* then *vajn* have.prs.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *aun* in\_addition *sju* can.ptcp.unm *gudaj* enjoy.inf *al* def.m.sg 620 *tat,* grandfather *fòrza* maybe *tgéj,* what *dus* two.m.pl *trajs* three *majnṣ* month.pl *a* and *gju* have.ptcp.unm *bjè* much 621 *léjgar* fun *cun* with *èl.* 3sg.m 622

'And then we were able to enjoy my grandfather a bit longer, maybe - how long? - two or three months, and had a lot of fun with him.'

*Èl* 3sg.m *durméva* sleep.impf.3sg *bjè,* a\_lot *quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *sél* on.def.m.sg 623 *baun-pégna,* bench.m.sg-oven.f.sg *api* and *mavi* go.impf.sbjv.3sg *èl,* 3sg.m *tatlava* listen.impf.3sg *'l* 3sg.m 624 *ugèn* with\_pleasure *música,* music.f.sg *ah,* ah *quaj* dem.unm *savèva* can.impf.3sg *'l,* 3sg.m *durmí* sleep.inf *a* and 625 *tatlá* listen.inf *música* music.f.sg *ajn* in *ina.* one.f.sg 626

'He slept a lot and used to go [and sit] on the oven bench and he would go, he loved to listen to the music, ah, this he was able to do, sleep and listen to the music at the same time.'

*A* and *dumandavan* ask.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *lu* then *èra,* also *magari* sometimes *inqual* some *discuérṣ* conversation.m.sg 627

*vajn* have.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *schòn* indeed *gju* have.ptcp.unm *a* and *raṣdava* speak.impf.3sg *bigja* neg *bjè,* much *ábar* but *ah* eh 628 *... scha* if *'l* 3sg.m *vèva* have.impf.3sg *bian,* good.adj.unm *vagnév'* come.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *schòn* indeed *séssúra* upon 629

*inqual* some *tgaussas.* thing.f.pl 630

> 'And if we asked him [a question], we really had a conversation with him from time to time, and he didn't speak much, but eh … when he was in a good mood, one could get to know some things.'


'Then we would ask him, we asked [him] where he had been working, he had been working for a certain time in Andermatt – and [that he knew] German I didn't know either – we had asked him whether he knew, he knew some German indeed, he really knew, which then was not the case with these old people.'

*A* and *lu* then *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m *lu...ra* then *gè* yes *ana* year *… sissòntasját* sixty-seven *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *'l* 3sg.m 638 *mòrts.* 639

die.ptcp.m.sg

'And then he is then still, yes [in] 1967 he died.'

### **8.4 Scùla da tanajtgèsa a Cazas**

```
Household school at Cazas30
```
(Tuatschín, Camischùlas, f6, aged 45) Recorded 2016/08/26 in Camischolas Duration 7'40"


<sup>30</sup>*Cazis* is the German denomination for the village; in Standard Sursilvan it is called *Cazas* and in the local Sutsilvan variety *Tgazas*.

'In Cazas I was in a room, well these were rooms for three, and then this was always, one [of the three] is always alone, of course, but the three of us, we had ... a great time.'

643 A Cazis da las in PN of DEF.F.PL sister.PL always hhhh RS of of of Maitli-RS31 lura da da Cazis. 644 diani, né say.PRS.3PL.3PL right say.IMPF.3PL.3PL then of of PN

'The nuns's [school] in Cazas [was] always [called], hah, the 'recruit school', 'the girl's recruit school', right?, [that's the way] they used to call Cazas.'

645 èra schòn ah, a ahm and DEM.M.UNM COP.IMPF.3sG in\_fact eh and get.IMPF.3sG very

álsò quaj pròpi tanidas 646 strèng, a strict.ADJ.UNM well DEM.UNM 1PL PASS.AUX.IMPF.3PL really hold.PTCP.F.PL and

amprèndar a nus stuèvan 647 1PL must.IMPF.1PL learn.INF and 1PL must.IMPF.1PL clean.INF and do.INF and 648 tùt.

all

'Ahm, and that was in fact ah, and it was getting very strict, well, and we were really kept [in a strict way] and we had to study and we had to clean and do and everything.'

649 A zacuras èri ahm ... da fá pensums, lu and sometime be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL hm

650 ruaus, in' in' ura da fá fá pènsums, a COP.IMPF.3SG.EXPL quiet.M.SG one.F.SG hour ATTR do.INF homework.M.PL and a dad ira 651 ...

after and ring.IMPF.3SG.EXPL and then have.IMPF.1PL.1PL to go.INF ...

652 fía túts tga SUBORD do.INF prayer.F.SG DEF.F.SG evening DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG all.M.PL REL 653 vèvan da dad í have.IMPF.3PL to to go.INF up uppermost do.INF prayer.F.SG of of DEF.F.SG sèra. 654

evening

<sup>31</sup> RS, German abbreviation for Rekrutenschule 'recruit school' and Maitli-RS Swiss German for 'girl's recruit school'.

'And sometime or another we had eh ... to do our homework, then it was quiet, one hour to do our homework and after [this], and the bell rang and we had to go ... to pray in the evening, then all had to to go upstairs, to the very top, to say the evening prayers.'


660 stizá cazùla. turn\_off.INF light.F.SG

> `And then we were free for about more or less half an hour, three quarters of an hour that we were allowed to do, well, to be louder, and then ... at at ten o'clock it had to be, I believe, or half past nine it had to be quiet, in the corridors, and in the bedroom the light was turned off at ten.'

661 traplada, and who REL do.IMPF.3SG NEG\_DEM.UNM and PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG catch.PTCP.F.SG 662 DEF.F.PL nun.PL go.IMPF.3PL just so to guard.F.SG who REL PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG 663 traplaus stuèva al vèndardís sèra ... stá catch.PTCP.M.SG must.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG Friday 664 lo, stgèvan bigj' í a tgèsa, api stèvan nus there be\_allowed.IMPF.3PL NEG\_go.INF to home.F.SG and must.IMPF.1PL 1PL 665 schùbargè in' lu clean.INF one.F.SG hour something sleep.INF there and must.IMPF.3PL then 666 í go.INF only DEF.F.SG Saturday in\_morning to home.F.SG

And the person who ... didn't do that and who got caught, the nuns would just walk around on guard duty, the person who got caught had to ... remain there on Friday evening, they were not allowed to go home, and then they had to clean

### 8 Texts

for more or less one hour, sleep there, and then could only go home on Saturday morning.'

*Qu'* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… quèlas* dem.f.pl *règlas.* rule.pl 667

'These were … those rules.'

*A* and *las* def.f.pl *sòras* nun.pl *savèvan* know.impf.3pl *tga* comp *nus* 1pl *trajs* three *nuṣ* 1pl *vagjan* have.prs.sbjv.1pl 668

*adina* always *u-léjgar,* elat-funny.adj.unm *a* and *nus* 1pl *mòndian ̱* go.prs.sbjv.1pl *bugèn* with\_pleasure *cò* here *gjù* down 669

*a* to *scùla,* school.f.sg *a* and *nus* 1pl *fé̱tschian* do.prs.sbjv.1pl *filistùcas,* prank.f.pl *ad* and *èlas* 3pl.f *pudévan* can.impf.3pl *maj* never 670

*tiar nus.* 671

> to 1pl

'And the nuns knew that the three of us, we always had fun, and that we liked to come to school down here, and that we used to play pranks, and that they would never be able to prove anything against us.'


*igl avrél.* 674

in.def.m.sg April

'And then there was … at that time, ah at that time still that … ahm, the apprenticeships would partly begin in April.'

*A* and *lu,* then *ah,* ah *álṣò* well *ajn* in *nòssa* poss.1pl.f.sg *classa,* class *c'* when *ju* 1sg *mava* go.impf.1sg *ála* to.def.f.sg 675

*tjarza* third *sacundara,* secondary *igl* def.m.sg *avrél* April *antschavévaṣ* begin.impf.2sg.gnr *amprém* first *da* comp *vagní* come.inf 676

*òd* out\_of *scùla,* school.f.sg *al* def.m.sg *davús* last *èranṣ* cop.impf.1pl.1pl *aun* only *quátar* four *… buébas* girl.f.pl *tga* rel 677 *mavan* go.impf.3pl *a* to *scùla* school.f.sg *ála* to.def.f.sg *tjarza* third *sacundara.* secondary 678

'And then, ah, in our class, when I attended the third grade of secondary school, in April you would first come out of school, at the end we were only four … girls that attended the third grade of secondary school. '

*A* in *Cazis* pn *ṣèra* cop.impf.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *al* def.m.sg *madèm.* same 679

'In Cazas this was the same thing.'

*A* and *lu* then *ajn* in *ajn* in *tgòmbra* room.f.sg *eri* exist.impf.3sg.expl *ina* one.f.sg *tga* rel *vèva* have.impf.3sg 680 *survgnú* get.ptcp.unm *igl* def.m.sg *avrél* April *plaza.* job.f.sg 681

'And then in our room there was one [girl] that had got a job in April.'

*A* and *las* def.f.pl *sòras* nun.pl *savèvan,* know.impf.3pl *quèl'* dem.f.sg *ò* have.prs.3sg *ùṣ* now *aun* only *in'* one.f.sg 682 *jamna,* week *a* and *quèlaṣ* dem.f.pl *òn* have.prs.3pl *bigja* neg *pudju* can.ptcp.unm *tiar* to *nus* 1pl *da* comp *fá* make.inf 683

*stá* stay.inf *in* indef.m.sg *vèndardís.* Friday 684

> 'And the nuns knew [that] this one had only one week [left], and they haven't been able to make us stay one Friday.'

*Api* and *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sòra* nun *òra* out *uschéja* so *… avaun* in\_front\_of *niaṣ* poss.1pl.m.sg *ésch* door 685 *ad* and *ò* have.prs.3sg *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *a* and *spatgau* wait.ptcp.unm *tòca* until *la* 3sg.f 686 *audi* hear.prs.sbjv.3sg *anzatgéj,* something *api* and *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *… ina* one.f.sg *da* of *nòssa* poss.1pl.f.sg 687 *tgòmbra* room *id'* go.ptcp.f.sg *òn* out\_in *tualèta* toilet *api* and *fò* make.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sòra:* nun 688

'And then the nun was out [in the corridor] like this ... in front of our door, waiting and waiting until she would hear something, and then … one of our room went out to the toilet, and the nun said:'

*«Chasch* can.prs.2sg *denn* then *grad* right\_away *usrichta,* tell.inf *Fritig* Friday *obig* evening *müänd* mu'.prs.2pl *är* 2pl *do* here 689 *bliiba.32»* 690

remain.inf

'You can just tell [them] that you have to stay here on Friday evening.'

<sup>32</sup>Said in Swiss German.


'And then she said there: «Cool, I'll just go and tell them.»'

la: 693 ajn tgòmbra api fò 3SG.F come.PTCP.F.SG in room.F.SG and make.PRS.3SG 3SG.F shit 1PL cò vèndardís» 694 stuajn stá must.PRS.1PL stay.INF here Friday.M.SG

`She came into the bedroom and said: «Shit! We have to stay here on Friday.»

695 A quaj vid risadas. and DEM.UNM by laughing.F.PL

'And [she said] this laughing.'

696 A A lu vèvani traplau circa sis. and then have.IMPF.3PL.3PL catch.PTCP.UNM about six

'And then they caught about six.'

697 Má tga a tgòmbra spèras fagèva since SUBORD DEF.F.SG room next do.IMPF.3SG also stupid.ADJ.UNM

'Because the room next [to ours] also behaved in a stupid way'


anything do.INF for.DEF.F.PL nun.PL and have.PRS.1PL 1sG have.PTCP.UNM

701 quèla gròndjus' idéa scha nuș ástgian cuschiná. DEM.F.SG great.F.SG idea if

"Then the six of us had to stay there, and then we had to clean for one hour or iron or do something else for the nuns, and then we had that great idea [to ask] whether we were allowed to cook.'

<sup>33</sup>Said in Swiss German.

<sup>34</sup> German for uschéja.

702 Gè nus35 ástgian cuschiná. yes 1PL be allowed.PRS.SBJV.1PL cook.INF

'And yes, we were allowed to cook.'

nus i36 703 Api èssan ajn cuschina, fatg pètas a and be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL in kitchen.F.SG make.PTCP.UNM cake.F.PL and ... gè ... . 704

yes

'And then we went to the kitchen, made cakes and .. yes ... . . 37

705 A A sèra ad and DEF.F.SG evening be.PRS.1PL 1PL must.IMPF.1PL 1PL just NEG go.INF at 706 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ju sa bigja hour.F.PL in bed.M.SG 1sG have.PRS.1PL do.PTCP.UNM 1sG know.1sG NEG 707 còn ditg la nòtg.

how long DEF.F.SG night

And in the evening, we went, we didn't have to go to bed early after all, we ... were busy I don't know how long during that night.

708 vajn nus méz svagljarín, api èssan nus then have.PRS.1PL 1PL put.PTCP.UNM alarm\_clock.M.SG and be.PRS.1PL 1PL . 709 las DEF.F.PL night.F.SG when DEF.F.PL nun.PL sleep.IMPF.3PL be.PRS.1PL 1PL :38 tala 710 go.pTCP.M.PL to.DEF.F.SG to INDEF.F.SG nun and fill.PTCP.UNM up DEF.M.SG ... ròlas da pupí ní ésch cul door with.DEF.M.SG roll.F.PL of paper.M.SG of toilet.F.SG until very\_top and 712 ... ina one.F.SG prank after DEF.F.SG other

'Then we set the alarm clock, and then we went ... at night when the nuns were sleeping we went ... to a nun and filled up the doorway with the ... rolls of toilet paper until the very top, and ... one prank after the other.'

<sup>35</sup> Gè nus replaces an unintelligible part.

<sup>37</sup> Here the narrator uses the masculine plural form instead of the feminine plural form. The same happens in line 710.

<sup>38</sup> i is a performance error for idas.

713 Api sjantar vajn nus sápian durmí òra, nus tartgau and after have.PRS.1PL 1PL think.PTCP.UNM 1PL can.PRS.SBJV.1PL sleep.INF out 714 ina ina sòra, quèla and then DEF.F.SG morning come.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG INDEF.F.SG nun DEM.F.SG 715 sòra tga vèva èba lu nun REL have.IMPF.3sG in\_fact DEF.M.SG door full F.PL be.PRS.3SG then dastadau 716 vagnida tị nus ad ò nus cun aua, come.PTCP.F.SG to 1PL and have.PRS.3SG wake.PTCP.UNM 1PL with water.F.SG aua, 717 sprizau bigja squirt.PTCP.UNM water.F.SG and and DEF.M.SG effect be.IMPF.3SG NEG quaj bigja stau 718 propi staus, castitg really COP.PTCP.M.SG DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG NEG COP.PTCP.UNM punishment.M.SG ns for 1PL must.INF remain.INF DEM.M.SG Friday and yes of DEM.M.PL gag.PL 720 fagèvan nus èba schòn.

make.IMPF.1PL 1PL after\_all really

'And then we thought we would have a good sleep, and then in the morning a nun came, the sister that had her door full of rolls came into our room and woke us up with water, squirted water, and, and, and there hadn't really been any effect, this wasn't a punishment for us, to be obliged to stay there that Friday and ... yes, we really made this sort of gags, after all."

721 A A nuș vajn gju schi súpar. and 1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM SO Super

'And we had such a wonderful time.'

722 Fu èr' ùs ah, ju vèva ajnsasèz al gju 1SG COP.IMPF.1SG now eh 1SG have.IMPF.1SG have.PTCP.UNM in fact DEF.M.SG

723 clégj dad èssar ajn tgòmbra cun ròmòntschas. luck COMP COP.INF in room.F.SG with Romansh.F.PL

'I was now eh, in fact I had been lucky to share the room with Romansh girls.'


And in fact, they would make sure to put ... the languages together, there are after all also girls from the Canton of Ticino, well, no, not from the Ticino, from from the Bregaglia or from ... . .

727 Tgé! Quèlas taljánaras èran ampªau anzjaman a las what DEM.F.PL Italian.F.PL COP.IMPF.3PL a\_bit = together and DEF.F.PL

728 vitg

Romansh..PL or DEF.F.PL German..PL or also of.DEF.M.SG village

729 schòn téc anzjaman. put.IMPF.3PL.3PL in\_fact INDEF.M.SG bit together

'Look! these Italians 40 were a bit together, and the Romansh or the Germans, or they put them together even from the [same] village.'

730 Usa quaj cò èra halt ramòntschas. Gè. A lu now DEM.UNM here COP.IMPF.3SG well Romansh.F.PL yes and then

731 ajni-

COP.PRS.3PL.3PL

'Well, now these [students] here were Romansh-speaking women. Yes. And then they are-'

PhM: Danunder 722 eran ellas? from where cop.impf.3pl 3pl

'PhM: Where were they from?'

733 ff6: Ina one.F.SG from PN and one.F.SG from PN

'One from Laax and one from Sagogn.'

rs and 3AUN.F two.F.PL but know.IMPF.3PL one.F.SG DEF.F.SG other and 1SG

735 lu halt a bégja. then in fact NEG

'But these two already knew ... each other but I didn't.'


<sup>39</sup> The Valle Bregaglia is one of the Italian-speaking valleys of the canton of the Grisons. 40 Italians and Germans: Italian- and German-speaking young women from the Grisons.

adá 738 Vès gè savju have.cond.3sG after\_all can.PTCP.UNM give.INF DEF.F.SG mouth over of.DEF.F.PL sòras. 739 -

nun.PL

'And ... and as for Romansh, in Cazas it was if ..., and ... we were not allowed to speak Romansh, as a matter of fact one could have made derisive remarks about the nuns.'

740 Nus stèvan rasdá - ... tudèstg. 1PL must.IMPF.1PL speak.INF German.M.SG

'We were obliged to speak German.'

741 A A prsulas nus and then but when 1PL COP.IMPF.1PL alone.F.PL speak.IMPF.1PL 1PL

742 naturálmajn romontsch. of course Romansh.M.sG

`But then, when we were alone, we would of course speak Romansh.'


German.M.sG

'And during lunch ... if a German ... nun was ... at table, all these - we, the Romansh speaking people, had to speak German.'

746 Lu vèvan nus anflau òra scha nus rassarvassan, nus then have.IMPF.1PL 1PL find.PTCP.UNM out if 1PL reserve.cond.1PL 1PL


'Then we found out [that], if we reserved, we had a, a napkin bag, and with this we used to go and reserve, but we used to put that bag already where we wanted to sit, and then we found out that if we went to sit next to Sister Andrea, she knew Romansh.'

*Scha* if *nus* 1pl *sé̱jṣian* sit.prs.sbjv.1pl *sin* on *lèza* dem.f.sg *majṣa,* table *ástgian* be\_allowed.prs.sbjv.1pl *nus* 1pl 752 *raṣdá* speak.1pl *ramòntsch, ̱* Romansh.m.sg *stuèvan* must.impf.1pl *bgja* neg *raṣdá* speak.inf *tudèstg.* German.m.sg 753

'If we sat at that table, we would be allowed to speak Romansh, we weren't obliged to speak German .'

*A* and *lu,* then *nus* 1pl *cò* here *sursilvanas,* Sursilvan.f.pl *matévan* put.impf.1pl *adina* always *da* during *pausa,* break.f.sg 754

*mavanṣ* go.impf.1pl.1pl *ajn* in *ṣala* hall.f.sg *da* attr *magljè,* eat.inf *prandèvan* take.impf.1pl *nòssa* poss.1pl.f.sg *… sarvjèta,* napkin 755 *matévan sé nùca la sòr' Andréa, a lu stgèvan nus* 756

put.impf.1pl up where def.f.sg nun pn and then be\_allowed.impf.1pl 1pl *raṣdá ramòntsch. ̱* 757

speak.inf Romansh.m.sg

'And then we, the Sursilvan students, would always place [it] during the break, we would go into the dining hall, would take our … napkin, would put it next to Sister Andrea, and then we were allowed to speak Romansh.'

*Má* since *tg'* subord *èla* 3sg.f *capéva* understand.impf.3sg *gè* in\_fact *nus.* 1sg 758

'Because, in fact, she understood us.'

*Ábar* but *lu,* then *lèza* dem.f.sg *raṣdava* speak.impf.3sg *lu* then *èxtra* on\_purpose *è* also *ramòntsch ̱* Romansh.m.sg *cun* with 759 *nus.* 760

1pl

'But then, on purpose, she would also speak Romansh with us.'

*Ábar* but *la,* def.f.sg *qu'* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *majṣa* table *séssum* on\_very\_top *a* and 761 *vèvan adin' ina sòra séssum.* 762

have.impf.1pl always indef.f.sg nun on\_very\_top 8 Texts

'But the, that was the table at the very top and we always had a nun at the very top.'

*A* and *lu* then *las* def.f.pl *majṣas* table.pl *gè* yes *drètg* right *a* and *saniastar* left *capévan* understand.impf.3pl *bigja* neg 763 *la* def.f.sg *sòra* nun *a* and *capévan* understand.impf.3pl *bigja* neg *nus.* 1pl 764

'And then the tables, yes, right and left wouldn't understand the nun and wouldn't understand us.'

*Ábar* but *nuṣ* 1pl *astgèvan* be\_allowed.impf.1pl *lu* then *raṣdá* speak.inf *ramòntsch. ̱* Romansh.m.sg 765

'But then we were allowed to speak Romansh.'


'And then we had the opportunity to be allowed to speak Romansh there.'


'And at the training college we simply spoke, there they would say «Speak German!», yes yes.'

*A* and *lu* then *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *tar* by *ina* indef.f.sg *scòlásta,* teacher *quèla* dem.f.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg 770

*in* indef.m.sg *U* U *… als* def.m.pl *bauns,* bench.pl *api* and *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *gjù* down *ajn* in *quaj* dem.m.sg 771 *cantún cò tùt las ròmòntschas, plus quèla da Mésòcò. ̱ 42* 772

corner here all def.f.pl Romansh.f.pl plus dem.f.sg of pn

'And then we had a teacher, she had formed a U … with the benches, and all the Romansh students were down in that corner, plus the one from Mesocco.'

<sup>41</sup>Said in Swiss German.

<sup>42</sup>Mesocco is a village in one of the Italian speaking valleys of the Grisons.

*A* and *cò* here *vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *raṣdau* speak.ptcp.unm *mù* only *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.m.sg 773

'And here only Romansh was spoken.'


speak.ptcp.unm here in dem.m.sg corner only Romansh.m.sg

'She spoke Italian, which we understood, but she also understood us, the Romansh speaking students, in that corner only Romansh was spoken.'


'But there were then students from the Engadine, form the Surselva, from Surmeir and also Mirta … from the Italian [speaking part of the Grisons].'

*Ad* and *na,* no *aun* still *ina,* one.f.sg *ina* one.f.sg *da* of *Bívjò,* pn *a* and *lèza* dem.f.sg *capéva* understand.impf.3sg 779 *talján.* 780

'And no, there still was another one, one from Bivio, and she understood Italian.'

*A* and *lu* then *vèva* have.impf.3sg *lèza* dem.f.sg *hald* simply *èra,* also *lèza* dem.f.sg *raṣdava* speak.impf.3sg *lu* then 781 *anstagl* instead\_of *tudèstg* German.m.sg *talján,* Italian.m.sg *a* and *lu* then *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nus* 1sg *cò* here *pròpi* really 782 *in* indef.m.sg *cantún* corner *tga* rel *vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *mù* only *raṣdau* speak.ptcp.unm *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.m.sg 783

'And then that one also had, instead of speaking German she spoke Italian, and then we had here a real Romansh corner where only Romansh was spoken.'

*A* and *la* def.f.sg *scòlásta* teacher *capéva* understand.impf.3sg *halt* simply *nuét.* nothing 784

'And the teacher wouldn't understand anything.'

Italian.m.sg


'But she has never been able to have us speak … .'

*Alṣò* well *clar,* clear.m.sg *a* at *al'* at.def.f.sg *instruczjún* teaching *raṣdávan* speak.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *gè* of\_course *schòn* in\_fact 787 *tudèstg.* 788

German.m.sg

'Well evidently, during teaching we would speak German, of course.'

*Ábar* but *simplamajn* simple.f.sg.adv *nus* 1pl *djantar* among *nus* 1pl *raṣdavan* speak.impf.1pl <sup>789</sup> *… .*

'But among ourselves we simply spoke … .'


'And also in in, actually I always had contact [with] Romansh colleagues, during that time of the training college.'

[PhM] *Aber* but *è* also *cun* with *engjadinesas?* Engadine.f.pl 792

'But also with [students] form the Engadine?'

[f6] *Gè* yes *gè.* yes *Ábar* but *raṣdavan* speak.impf.1pl *adina* always *ròmòntsch.* Romansh.m.sg 793

'Yes, yes. But we always spoke Romansh.'


<sup>43</sup>The preposition *cun* 'with' is missing.


'At the beginning when you don't understand yet those ... strange words they use, you must just ask: «Hey, what does this mean?» And then they say what [it means], and the next time this word occurs [again], you know after all, or by the context you then understand what it means.'

800 í sèra astgèvas in téc a spas, DEF.F.SG evening be\_allowed.IMPF.2SG.GNR go.INF INDEF.M.SG bit to walk.M.SG 801 quaj vuta dí tgèsa

DEM.UNM want.PRS.3SG say.INF away of.DEF.F.SG house


'In the evening you were allowed to go for a little walk, this means away from the house until that street, until the lantern, and then you had to go back.

804 Quaj fùs stau tupira DEM.UNM COP.COND.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM stupid.ELAT for 1SG COMP must.INF

805 rașdá speak.INF in room.F.SG with DEM.F.PL Romansh.PL German.M.SG

'It would have been very stupid for me if I'd had to speak ... German in the room with the other Romansh room-mates.'

 è scù ju détsch, buébas scha ju 806 Ouaj DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG as 1SG say.PRS.1SG with POSS.1SG.F.PL girl.PL if 1SG ùsa, è sch'ju stés ála 807 stuès bassa.

must.coND.1sG now also if - 1sG stay.coND.1sG in.DEF.F.SG lowlands

"This is as I say, with my daughters if I now should, even if I lived outside the Grisons.'


'And I, as a mother, should I now speak German with them, this would be so strange.'

*Al* def.m.sg *lungatg* language *… car,* dear.adj.m.sg *álṣò* well *quaj* dem.unm *tgi* rel *té,* 2sg.gnr *quaj* dem.unm 810 *hèrzic,* cute.adj.m.sg *né,* right *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *al* def.m.sg *lungatg-mùma,* language.m.sg-mother.f.sg 811 *a* and *té* 2sg.gnr *sas* can.prs.2sg.gnr *tòh* after\_all *bgja* neg *raṣdá* speak.inf *... cun* with *in* indef.m.sg *ufaun* child 812 *… sin* on *tudèstg* German.m.sg *a* and *fá,* do.inf *álṣò* well *sch'* if *i* expl *è* cop.prs.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *ufaun* child 813 *tudèstg* German *sa* can.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *gè* after\_all *è* also *fá* do.inf *quaj,* dem.unm *ábar* but *lu* then *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg 814 *quaj* dem.unm *bigja* neg *mju,* poss.1sg.m.sg *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *gè* after\_all *bgja* neg *mju* poss.1sg.m.sg 815 *cùr* heart *ni* or *mju* poss.1sg.m.sg *… mia* poss.1sg.f.sg *carèzja* love *tgu* rel.1sg *stù* must.prs.1sg *dá* give.inf 816 *da* dat *quèlas.* dem.f.pl 817

'The dear … language, well the language you, the cute one, right?, this is the mother tongue, and you really cannot speak German … with a child … and do, well if it is a German-speaking child, I can of course do that, but then it is not mine, this is of course not my heart or my … my love that I have to give them.'

### **8.5 La détga da la Plata dl barlòt**

**The legend of the slab of sorcery** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, m6, aged 65) Recorded 2016/08/23 in Sedrun Duration 3'10"

*La* def.f.sg *Plata* slab *dl* of.def.m.sg *Barlòt* sorcery *è* cop.prs.3sg *sé* up *Caschlè.* pn 818

'The sorcery slab is at Caschlè.'

<sup>44</sup>According to some consultants, the form *jastar* should be replaced by *iastar*.

819 A qu' è pròpi and DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG precisely INDEF.F.SG very big slab also bjala, pastira, 820 ina INDEF.F.SG beautiful lie.PRS.3SG well in.DEF.F.SG pastureland and of DEM.F.SG 821 naturálmajn ... vagní have.PRS.3SG.GNR natural.M.SG.ADV almost must.PTCP.UNM come.INF with ina détga. 822 INDEF.F.SG legend

And this really is a ... very big slab, also a beautiful one, lies well in the pastureland, and of this slab, one of course had .... to ... come up with a legend.'

823 A A la détga praquénta and DEF.F.SG legend tell.PRS.3SG COMP DEF.F.PL witch.PL DEF.M.SG PN REL sé cò a a fijèvan 824 COP.IMPF.3PL up here and do.IMPF.3PL sorcery have.PRS.SBJV.3PL 825 trans-pòrtau fil-sajda ... navèn carry.PTCP.UNM DEM.F.SG slab on INDEF.M.SG thread-silk.F.SG away 826 Culmatsch vi alp from.DEF.M.SG PN over and into DEM.M.SG place on.DEF.F.SG alp Caschlè. amiaz al 827 in the midst of DEF.M.SG PN

'And the legend says ... that the witches of the Caschlè who were up there and used to do sorcery had carried this slab on a ... silk thread ... away from the Culmatsch and ... into the pasture in the midst of the Caschlè.'

828 A quèla, quèla, quèla è è pròpi. and DEM.F.SG DEM.F.SG slab COP.PRS.3SG COP.PRS.3SG COP.PRS.3SG really 829 e ina pulita lie.PRS.3SG well in flat.M.UNM DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG INDEF.F.SG huge 830 las, surface and on DEM.F.SG slab come.PRS.3PL DEF.F.PL come.IMPF.3PL 831 las stréjas né végnan DEF.F.PL witch.PL or come.PRS.3PL maybe still always of of night and barlòt ad oòravauntùt sáutani. fön al 832 do.PRS.3PL DEF.M.SG sorcery and above all dance.PRS.3PL.3PL

<sup>45</sup> Sin instead of sén, see also sila instead of séla l. 826.

8 Texts

'And that, that slab is is is really - lies perfectly even, this is a huge surface, and on this slab ... the witches come, used to come or still come ... at night and do sorcery and they dance above all.'

vart da la 833 A plata șaj ajn usché and of INDEF.F.SG side of DEF.F.SG slab EXIST.PRS.3SG.EXPL in so in in pin scaf 834 İn, INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG little.M.SG footprint and in DEM.M.SG 835 scaf al paj ad aut cu footprint hold.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG musician DEF.M.SG foot to high when 3SG.M 836 végn suná la a come.PRS.3SG SUBORD play DEF.F.SG violin and DEM.M.SG footprint see.PRS.3SG 837 ins èra.

GNR also

'And on one side of the slab there is a kind of a, a a small footprint and in this footprint the musician holds up his foot when he comes in order to play the violin, and you can also see this footprint.'

838 A and then if GNR go.PRS.3SG up and and tell.PRS.3SG DEM.F.SG legend 839 dals ufaunts né dals scòlars scha, quaj DAT.DEF.M.PL child.PL or DAT.DEF.M.PL pupil.PL CORR DEM.UNM make.PRS.3SG 840 naturálmajn natural.M.SG.ADV impression.F.SG and 3PL.M and see.PRS.3PL then 841 simaginá quaj.

can.PRS.3PL REFL.imagine.INF DEM.UNM

'And then, if one goes up and, and tells this legend to the children or to the pupils, then, this impresses them and ... and they and, see [it], then they can imagine it.'

842 A A lu, alu, als als a car pasturs sé cò cun stjarlas and then DEF.M.PL herdsman.PL REL COP.IMPF.3PL up here with calf.F.PL adin'adin' 843 vèvan téc pròblèms cula, culs have.IMPF.3PL always INDEF.M.SG bit problem.M.PL with.DEF.F.SG DEF.M.PL barlòt 844 DEF.M.SG Sorcery of DEF.F.PL calf.PL - always and and of DEM.UNM

<sup>46</sup> Tégna is a performance error for tégn.


`And the herdsmen who were up there with one year old female calves had always problems with the, with the ... with the sorcery of the calves [witches], always, and people would also tell this and that about this and ... they would hinder them from looking after [the animals], and there were different stories about that.'

848 A clumau alu sain'and jèda and then therefore have.IMPF.3PL.3PL call.PTCP.UNM then one.F.SG time 849 al, gl aucségnar, al da Sadrún da vagní DEF.M.SG DEF.M.SG priest sso séga up and bless.INF out DEF.F.SG rock SUBORD COMP COMP DEM.F.PL witch.PL 851 dètian48 in' give.PRS.SBJV.3PL one.F.SG time rest.M.SG and DEF.F.SG blessing plé 852 vèva stréjas. have.IMPF.3SG much more power.F.SG on.DEF.F.PL witch.PL

'And therefore they had once called the, the priest, the parish priest from Sedrun in order to bless the slab so those witches, so they would for once leave them in peace, and the blessing had much more power over the witches.'

853 A quèl ... aucségnar ò lu banadjú òra ... la and DEM.M.SG priest 2 have.PRS.3sG then bless.PTCP.UNM out DEF.F.SG naturálmajn 854 plata a slab and upset.PTCP.UNM natural.M.SG.ADV through DEM.UNM DEF.F.PL witch.PL clar. 855

for sure

This ... priest blessed ... the slab and doing so he of course upset the witches, for sure.'

<sup>47</sup> Stjarlas 'one year old female beef' instead of stréjas 'witches'.

<sup>48</sup> Unclear part, replaced by dètjan.

856 A A and then DEF.M.SG next one of.DEF.M.PL next.PL winter.PL 857 dau ina grònda navada, qu' have.prs.3sg.expl Exist.pTCP.unm indef.f.sg big 858 stau gl be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG year thousand and and seven hundred e tauns, quaj 859 a and so\_many.M.PL DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG avalanche of 860 lavina con bé tgé o tgé o òn quaj DEF.F.SG avalanche of PN mili 861 èra, ડુટે COP.IMPF.3SG thousand and seven hundred and so\_many.M.PL be.PRS.3SG.EXPL mili 862 Stau, COP.PTCP.UNM thousand and seven hundred eighty

And then the next, one of the next winters ... there was a big snowfall, this was in 1700 and something, this was the avalanche of ... the avalanche of ... Rueras, I don't know which year this was, it was in 1700 and something, in 1780.'

gljèz è 863 Our Current dòcumèntau, DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG document.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM also but DEM.M.SG date

864 ùssa bétg. know.PRS.1sG.1sG now NEG

'This is documented, this too, but the date I don't know now.'


"Then a huge avalanche went down ... and had ... destroyed a big part of the village in the upper part of Rueras ... and people died, and, of course, they had ... also sounded the alarm down in Sedrun.'

869 A A saméz sén and then DEF.M.SG priest

870 a way.F.SG SUBORD go.INF into PN 871 holy.M.SG oil or DEF.M.SG last - sacrament REL give.IMPF.3PL DAT DEM.M.PL 872 atrás ... Zarcúns a dying.PL enough DEF.M.SG priest Come.PRS.3SG through PN PN and o 873 lu lu a auda then hear.PRS.3SG 3SG.M DEF.F.PL witch.PL up here uppermost DEF.F.SG valley of l' Òndadusa òni clumau: 874

have.PRS.3PL.3PL call.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG PN

`And then, the priest ... of Sedrun ... set off in order to go to Rueras and bring help and administer the sacrament of anointing or the Holy Sacrament they would give to those ... dying people. Well, the priest comes through Zarcuns and then he hears the witches up there, they called from the uppermost part of the Ondadusa valley:'

875 «Al végn, agl 3SG.M come.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG priest

«He comes, the priest, from Sedrun."

 ỏ 'l 876 Ad òz and today have.PRS.3SG 3SG.M NEG up DEF.F.SG chasuble - around DEF.M.SG 877

neck

'And today he doesn't have the chasuble around his neck'.'

878 'l sè today cop.prs.3sg 3sg.m NEG protect.PTCP.M.PL push.IMP.2PL DEF.F.SG

lavina!» 879 avalanche

'Today he is not protected, push the avalanche!»'

880 Ad ajnaquèla sadèrs ... ina grónda and at\_that\_moment be.PRS.3SG REFL.fall.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG huge 881 avalanche down of DEF.F.SG valley DEF.F.SG PN down towards

<sup>49</sup> Schurmagjaj is a performance error for schurmagjaus.


'And precisely at that moment … a huge avalanche … came down from the Ondadusa valley, down towards the village, or the small village, the hamlet of Zarcuns, and the priest really was engulfed by the avalanche and was … dead, so that the witches got their revenge on the priest of Sedrun.'

*A* and *vid* at *quèla* dem.f.sg *tgèsa* house *dals* of.def.m.pl *Schmits* Schmit.pl *ṣaj* cop.prs.3sg.expl *aun* still *sé* up 886 *quèla* dem.f.sg *crusch* cross *tga* rel *ragòrda* remind.prs.3sg *vi* over *da* of *quèla* dem.f.sg *diṣgrazja* tragedy *ajnta* in *Ruèras,* pn 887

*ajn,* in *ajn* in *Zarcúns,* pn *gè.* yes 888

> 'And on that house of the Schmid family there still is this cross that reminds of that tragedy in Rueras, in, in Zarcuns, yes.'


'But this impresses [people], that, the Ondadusa when the witches pushed [the avalanche] down the valley.'

*A* and *fòrsa* maybe *fòni* do.prs.3pl.3pl *vinavaun* still *barlòt.* sorcery 891

'And maybe they keep doing sorcery.'

### **8.6 Scuá ajn scùla**

### **Sweeping in school**

(Tuatschín, Sèlva, f2, aged 79) Recorded 2016/06/08 in Sedrun Duration 1'

*Nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nòssa* poss.1pl.f.sg *scùla* school *ajn* in *Sùtcrè̱stas,* pn *qu'* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg 892

*dadajns* in\_interior *Sèlva,* pn *api* and *èri* exist.impf.3sg.expl *è* also *adina* always *duaṣ* two.f.pl *buébas* girl.pl *tga* rel 893

*vèvan* have.impf.3pl *da* to *scuá.* sweep.inf 894

> 'We had our school in Sutcrestas, this is outside Selva, and there were also always two girls who had to sweep.'


'Right? In the afternoon at four o'clock, there was no ah, how does one say? no caretaker, every week two girls had to do [that].'


'And down there, it was winter, there still were buildings [there], and there were men who would feed the animals, and one, this one had always, when he came out of the barn, staying in the doorway and saw us, he would say:'

### 8 Texts


'«Listen! The aunts, the spirits are saying ... a rosary down in the church.'

*A* and *nus* 1pl *tumévan,* be.afraid.impf.1pl *a* and *schèvan* let.impf.1pl *dá* give.inf *quèlas* dem.f.sg *scúaṣ* broom.pl *a* and *da* of 904

*quaj,* dem.unm *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *crèst,* hill *a* and *da* from *quaj* dem.m.sg *crès[t]* hill 905

*gjù* down *a* to *tgèsa.* home.f.sg 906

> 'And we were afraid and would let these brooms and so on fall down, this is a hill, and from this hill [we would run] down until home.'

*Sagir* sure *quaj* dem.unm *fagèv'* make.impf.3sg *adin'* always *in'* def.f.sg *impramasjun<sup>50</sup>* impression *cu* when *quèl* dem.m.sg 907

*antschavèv'* begin.impf.3sg *ajn* in *cun* with *séjs* poss.3sg.m.pl *spérts* spirit.pl *a* and *tùt* all *quaj* dem.unm *tg'* rel 908 *èra.* 909

exist.impf.3sg

'For sure, this made always an impression when he started with his spirits and everything that was there.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *in'* one.f *jèda* time *... brutal* terrible.adj.unm *tiar* among *nus,* 1pl *bèn-bèn.* red~really 910

'Once it was terrible among us, really.'

*Api* and *ṣchèvan* say.impf.3pl *aj* 3pl *èba* precisely *in* one.m.sg *tg'* rel *è* be.prs.3sg *mòrts* die.ptcp.m.sg *tga* rel 911 *végn a métar als, als tjarms ... la* 912

come.prs.3sg subord put.inf def.m.pl def.m.pl boundary\_stone.pl def.f.sg


<sup>50</sup>Performance error for *imprèsjun*.

'And, precisely, they also used to say [that] somebody who had died came and put the, the boundary stones ... at night - because when it [al prau 'the field'] was sold – he had put them in another place.'

915 Ad ùs stù 'l and now must.PRS.3SG 3SG.M really è tùt, lajn 916 quaj nus DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG all IMP.1PL say.INF fantasy.F.SG but when 1PL afòns, nus cartévan 917 èran ad ju für ina COP.IMPF.1PL child.PL. 1PL. believe.IMPF.1PL and 1SG be.COND.1SG. INDEF.F.SG 918 sèra maj maj vidi ò evening never go.PTCP.F.SG out of home.F.SG DEF.F.SG evening of dark.ADJ.UNM

'And now he must really come and put them [in the right place]; this is all, let's say, fantasy, but when we were children we would believe [that], but I would never have left home in the evening when it was dark.'

919 Gnanc schi fétg. not even down in cellar.M.SG 1PL be afraid.IMPF.1PL so much

'Not even down to the cellar, we were so very afraid.'

### 8.7 Als méls

The mules (Tuatschín, Ruèras, m10, aged 74) Recorded 2017/11/02 in Sedrun Duration 9'

920 Bian, mju bap da good.ADJ.UNM POSS.1SG.M.SG father be.IMPF.3SG malitèr tials òrdònanzs dad òficiars, 921 military\_service.M.SG at.DEF.M.PL orderly.PL of officer.M.PL and have.IMPF.3SG 922 ... raquintava savèns tg' tell.IMPF.3SG often COMP 3PL.M have.IMPF.3PL to clean.INF DEF.M.PL 923 òficiars. horse.PL of.DEF.M.PL officer.PL

'Well, my father had been serving in the army with the orderlies of officers, and had ... would often tell that they had to clean the horses ... of the officers.'


'And then he used to tell [me] that he had ... since in the army he had maybe been with the horses, or had to do with horses, then ... he had bought a donkey, that is to say a mule, not a donkey, a mule.'


"The mules were, these were in fact ... strong animals and he used that mule for transporting wood up from Cavorgia.'

bjè 934 Lu mávani then go.IMPF.3PL.3PL often down\_in PN 935 bjè lèna.

come.IMPF.3SG much wood.coll

"Then they often went down to Cavorgia, much wood came from that big forest there.'

<sup>51</sup> In spazjal is a performance error for ina spazjala.

<sup>52</sup> Uaul is Standard Sursilvan for uaut.


'And then during winter they used to go down to Cavorgia and transport wood with the mules up [to Surrein].'

 mél. 938 dal and then eh tell.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M always of.DEF.M.SG of.DEF.M.SG mule

'And then ah ... he would always talk about, about the mule.'

939 Api, ah, quaj pròpi mè, ju vèș ah gè ju and eh DEM.UNM eh fascinate.IMPF.3SG really 1sG 1sG have.coND.1sG ah yes 1sG d' d'ancancanùschar quaj 940 Vès è ugèn ampríu have.cond.1sG also with\_pleasure learn.PTCP.UNM COMP know.INF DEM.M.SG 941 mél, ábar ju ... sùn mèmja tart. mule but 1sG be.PRS.1sG just be\_born.PTCP.M.SG too late

`And, eh, this really fascinated me, I would have eh yes I would have very much liked to get to know this mule, but I was just born too late.'

942 Api ah, va cu cu ju da and eh have.PRS.1SG 1SG DEF.M.SG when 1sG have.PRS.1SG eh when 943 bap ò da fá fá la pur, POSS.1SG.M.SG father have.PRS.3SG stop.PTCP.UNM COMP do.INF DEF.M.SG farmer i – – – – ju, "ju" gidav' – – – "adina – èl – – "avaunta 944 scha va fá CORR have.PRS.1SG 1SG 1SG help.IMPF.1SG always 3SG.M before SUBORD do.INF 945 pur.

DEF.M.sG farmer

And ah I have, when I have ... eh, when my father stopped working as a farmer, I have, I always helped him before with farming.'

946 A A lu Cucur èl calau da fafá fá a flata a f pur, and then when 3sg.m have.prs.3sG stop.pTCP.UNM COMP do.INF DEF.M.SG farmer las, las, las, cu cu cu el ju vandju 947 a vajn, and have.prs.1PL have.prs.1sG 1sG sell.pTCP.UNM DEF.F.PL when 3SG.M 948 vandju las ju have.prs.3sg sell.pTcp.UNM DEF.F.PL cow.PL CORR have.PRS.1sG 1sg

### 8 Texts


'And then, when he stopped working, and we have, I sold the, when he sold the cows, ... I told him, and if … it was then a bit difficult for him to sell … cattle.'

*A* and *lu* then *... va* have.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *détg* say.ptcp.unm *a* and *scha* if *… salv'* keep.1sg *ju* 1sg *vinavaun* still 951

*als* def.m.pl *prauṣ* meadow.pl *api* and *fagjajn* do.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *sé* up *nùrsas,* sheep.f.pl *cumprajn* buy.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl 952

*nùrsas ad ju fètsch, fètsch al … pur da nùrsas* 953

sheep.f.pl and 1sg make.prs.1sg make.prs.1sg def.m.sg farmer of sheep.f.pl *in pau.* 954

indef.m.sg little

'And then I said and if … I'll go on keeping the meadows and we breed sheep, we buy sheep and I work as a … as a sheep farmer a bit.'


*méls, aun adina patartgau mintgataun, ad in' jèda* 958

mule.pl still always think.ptcp.unm sometimes and one.f.sg time

*va* have.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *cumprau* buy.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *mél.* mule 959

'And then I worked as a farmer and slowly built a new sheepfold and ah … I have, eh still liked mules, and still thought [about them] from time to time, and once I bought a mule.'


'And ah ... at first I bought only one, but afterwards I … bought a second [one].'


964 quèls DEM.M.PL mule

> 'And then I've had ... different, I could recount many incidents I've had with these mules.'

965 Quèls flots tiars, nuș vajn DEM.M.PL do.IMPF.3PL EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG smart.M.PL animal.PL 1PL have.PRS.1PL

966 par èxèmpal ah fatg ah, ina tura ... da sauma,


guest.PL

"These used to do, they were smart animals, for instance we took a trip with the bridled mules, therefore we had put up |on the mules] ... the suitcases of the guests.'

969 A A in' and then be.PRS.1PL 1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL one.F.SG time away from PN until

970 ád Acquarossa cùn ... cùn quèls to PN with with DEM.M.PL mule.PL well well then make.PTCP.UNM

971 étápas a mintg' jèda ails. ajn ajn in leg.F.PL and each time.F.SG sleep.PTCP.UNM in.DEF.M.PL in in INDEF.M.SG 972 hotel.

hotel

And then we went once from Muster to Acquarossa with ... with these mules, well well, [we did it in] stages and each time [we] slept in the, in in a hotel.'

973 A A lu vajn nus, quaj èra tùt fatg a and then have.prs.1PL 1PL DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG all do.PTCP.UNM and 974 avaun tg' nua reconnoitre.PTCP.UNM before SUBORD GNR know.IMPF.3SG where GNR 975 vèva da durmí, ... da métar ah sur have.IMPF.3SG to sleep.INF where EXPL be.IMPF.3SG to put.INF ah over

### 8 Texts


for.def.m.pl *méls,* mule.pl *a* and *quaj* dem.unm *èra* pass.aux.impf.3sg *tùt* all *òrganisau* organise.ptcp.unm *òrdavaun.* 978

in\_advance

'And then we have, this had all been done and reconnoitred before, so that one knew where to sleep, where to put the mules over night, where there was food for the mules, and all that had been organised in advance.'

*Ad* and *in'* one.f.sg *jèd'* time *èssan* be.prs.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *i* go.ptcp.m.pl *navèn* from *da* of *... l'* def.m.sg *Albṣú* pn <sup>979</sup> *… tòcan* until *a* to *… Guòttanna* pn *... èl<sup>53</sup>* in.def.m.sg *cantún* canton *Bèrna.* pn 980

'And once we went from … the Alpsu to … Guttannen … in the canton of Bern.'


'And then we went to … the first … night we slept in Realp, the second night we slept in Tiefenbach.'

*Avaun,* before *navèn* away *da* from *Realp* pn *essan* be.prs.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *i* go.ptcp.m.pl *dad* from *ina* indef.f.sg *… dad* from 984 *in* indef.m.sg *… trùtg* footpath *sédòra* up *tòcan* until *séssúr* up\_over *las* def.f.pl *lavinèras,* avalanche\_barrier.pl *a* and 985 *... sésúr* up\_over *las* def.f.pl *lavinèraṣ* avalanche\_barrier.pl *ah* ah *èssan* be.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *lu* then *i,* go.ptcp.m.pl 986 *quaj* dem.unm *vò* go.prs.3sg *sé* up *ancù̱ntar* towards *l'* def.f.sg *Albert-Heim-Hütte<sup>54</sup>* pn-pn-hut *... èssan* be.prs.1pl 987 *nus,* 1pl *quaj* dem.unm *èssan* be.prs.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *i* go.ptcp.m.pl *sé* up *pr̩* subord *… pr̩* subord *bitga* neg *stuaj* must.inf 988

<sup>53</sup>*Èl* is Standard Sursilvan for *ál* or *ajl*.

	- pass

'Before, from Realp we went on a footpath [which lead us] above the avalanche barriers and above the avalanche barriers we went then, this goes up towards the Albert-Heim-hut ... we ... there we went up in order to avoid the car road, the road of the pass.'

A lu èssan nuș i sé api vagní surangjù 991 ad and then be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL up and come.PTCP.M.PL over\_down and gjù Tiefenbach. İ 992 go.PTCP.M.PL down PN

'And then we went up and came [from] over [the avalanche barriers] down and went down to Tiefenbach.'

è usch' ina 993 Quaj ina, stazjun amiaz al pas DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG INDEF.F.SG such INDEF.F.SG station amid DEF.M.SG pass 994 pas. around or almost on\_top DEF.M.SG pass

"This is a, such a station in the middle [of the road to] the pass, approximately, or ... almost on top of the pass.'

nus ah durmju lò, apieli 995 A A lu vajn autar dé and then have.PRS.1PL 1PL ah sleep.PTCP.UNM there and DEF.M.SG other.M.SG day 996 a da ... cù è l' nus ... i nùm, ju be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL to to to how COP.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG name 1SG cùls nùms in téc misérjas, a 997 have.PRS.1SG with.DEF.M.PL name.PL INDEF.M.SG bit problem.F.PL in PN

And then we ah slept there, and the next day we went to, to ... what is the name, these names I have some problems, to Gletsch.'


<sup>54</sup> Said in German.

### 8 Texts


And then we slept there, and from Gletsch we - there we then had to go on the way, we went up to the Grimsel [pass] and then we slept up there at the guesthouse on the Grimsel, and then we ... went on ... eh with the mules.'

Lò dati sé dal ina, Grimsel vagnévi 1003 there EXIST.PRS.3SG.EXPL INDEF.F.SG up of.DEF.M.SG PN 1004 ... in da sauma ... in trùtg nùca tga INDEF.F.SG - INDEF.M.SG - INDEF.M.SG footpath of bridle.F.SG where REL 1005 cùls cùls méls tgavals. go.IMPF.3PL with.DEF.M.PL with.DEF.M.PL mule.PL or with.DEF.M.PL horse.PN

'There there is a, from the Grimsel there came a ... a bridle path where one would go with the mules or horses.'


'Years ago they used to organise transports of of cheese, I think, and ... and they still talk about [these things] today.'

1008 A A trùtg trùtg e e era in and then and there DEM.M.SG footpath COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG

antrás 1009 trùtgs fatg footpath.M.PL through DEF.F.PL work.PL when 3PL have.PRS.3PL make.PTCP.UNM òvra èlèctrica. 1010 la

DEF.F.SG work electric

'And then ... and there, this footpath was a ... paths were built when they built the electric power station.'

<sup>55</sup> On the way and not on the footpath.

<sup>56</sup> Caschial is Standard Sursilvan for magnùc.


1013 pintga ... sènda tg'ins sò ira aha paj INDEF.F.SG small \_ path REL GNR can.PRS.3SG go.INF eh on foot.M.SG

flòt. 1014

easy.ADJ.UNM

'And then they made, out of the rock face, this is to say out of the rock they made a small ... path through which one could easily go eh on foot.'

1015 Que e btg ina lada sènda, quèl' èra DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG NEG INDEF.F.SG broad path DEM.F.SG COP.IMPF.3SG 1016 fòrsa ... ah in mètar a miaz, strusch dus, a nus, ge maybe eh one.M.SG metre and half almost two and then be.PRS.1PL 1PL yes 1017 mètar a miaz plétost a mintgataun èri aun one.M.SG metre and half rather and sometimes EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL moreover ò in téc ... . tga stèv' 1018 grépa rock.coll REL stand.IMPF.3sG out INDEF.M.SG bit

'This is not a broad path, it was maybe ... eh one metre, almost two, and then we, yes rather one and a half metre and from time to time there were rocks protruding a bit ... . .


'And then eh ... my brother-in-law led one mule – at that time he had two – and I led one.'

1021 Al vèva mal ina tgòmba. quinau DEF.M.SG brother-in-law have.IMPF.3SG bad.ADJ.UNM INDEF.F.SG leg

'My brother-in-law had leg pain.'


*da* from *via* road.f.sg *òra,* out *a* and *lu* then *va* have.1sg *ju* 1sg *rantau* bind.ptcp.unm *in* one.m.sg *mél* mule *vi* over 1024 *dal* of.def.m.sg *autar,* other *álṣò* well *vi* over *da* of *la* def.f.sg *… vi* over *dal* of.def.m.sg *… cavèstar* bridle *da* of 1025 *lèz,* dem.m.sg *álṣò* that\_is\_to\_say *vi* over *dal* of.def.m.sg *… dal* of.def.m.sg *bast* packsaddle *da* of 1026 *lèz* dem.m.sg *scù* as *inṣ* gnr *di,* say.prs.3sg *api* and *ah* eh *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *cùn* with *dòmaṣdús.* both.m.sg 1027

'And then he said he couldn't walk on that path, that I - that he was sorry, [but] that he would walk on the road, and then I bound one mule to the other, well, to the … eh to the bridle of this one, that is to say to the the packsaddle of that one as one says, and then eh I left with both [mules].'

*A* and *qu'* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *schòn* really *strètg,* narrow.adj.unm *álṣò* well *sch'* if *ju* 1sg *stèṣ* must.cond.1sg 1028 *aun* again *fá* do.inf *in'* one.f.sg *jèda* time *quaj,* dem.unm *figès* do.cond.1sg *ju* 1sg *bétga.* neg 1029

'And this was really narrow, well, if I had to do it once again, I wouldn't do it.'

*Mintgataun* sometimes *vasèvaṣ* see.impf.2sg.gnr *gjùadò* down\_and\_out *grad* directly *agradgjù,* steep\_down *tòcan* until *gjù* down 1030 *èl'* in.def.f.sg *aua,* water *álṣò* well *sch'* if *in* one.m.sg *fùṣ* pass.aux.cond.3sg *ùssa* now *tagljau,* cut.ptcp.unm 1031 *quèlas* dem.f.pl *… al* def.m.sg *bùrdi* load *stèva* stand.impf.3sg *ò* out *ualti* quite *gljunsch,* far *quaj* dem.unm 1032

*balantschava* roll.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *téc.* bit 1033

> 'From time to time one looked directly down, directly down, until down in the water, well, if one of these [ropes that I used to bind the mules together] had been cut, these... the load was sticking out quite a lot, it was rolling a bit.'

*A* and *lur* then *scha* if *'l* 3sg.m *vèṣ* have.cond.3sg *ùssa* now *pagljau* hit.ptcp.unm *par* for *èxè̱mpal* example.m.sg 1034 *in grép tga vès pudju bétar èl, scha*

indef.m.sg rock rel have.cond.3sg can.ptcp.unm throw.inf 3sg.m corr 1035

*quèls* dem.m.pl *fùssan* be.cond.3pl *grat* immediately *schulaj* fall\_rapidly.ptcp.m.pl *gjù* down *ajl'* into.def.f.sg 1036

*aua,* water *ajl* into.def.m.sg *lac.* lake 1037

'And then if it [the load] hit a rock which could have thrown it down, the mules would have immediately fallen down rapidly into the water, into the lake.'

1038 in téc cùn èls, ju èra but also 1sg 1sg speak.IMPF.1sg INDEF.M.SG bit with 3PL.M 1sg cop.IMPF.1sG dad 1039 mèz èr ... saspruava self.1sG.M also REFL.try.hard.IMPF.1sG COMP COP.INF calm.M.SG DEM.UNM 1040 ju tiptòp, tòcan ò atrás.

be.PRS.3SG go.PTCP.UNM perfectly until out through

'But I also, I spoke a bit with them, I was myself also ... tried hard to remain calm, this went perfectly throughout the whole trip.'

A lu èssans lu i l' autar dé. 1041 and then be.IMPF.1PL.1PL then go.PTCP.M.PL DEF.M.SG other day

`And the next day we went there.'

1042 La davùsa nògj vajn nuș durmju ... a Guottannen. DEF.F.SG last

'The last night we slept in Guttannen.'

Quaj èra. dad ira cùn cùn sauma 1043 DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG COMP go.INF with with bridle.F.SG COP.IMPF.3SG

1044 quaj súpar cùn quèls, cùn quèls, cùn quèls guàls. DEM.UNM great with DEM.M.PL with DEM.M.PL mule.PL

'This was, to go with bridles, this was great with these, with these mules.'

1045 Què è pròpa tiars plé déstinaj par ah fá DEF COP.PRS.3SG really animal.M.PL more suited.PTCP.M.PL SUBORD ah do.INF sauma. 1046 bridle

'These were really animals that are more suited to being bridled.'

1047 Ad èr' è zatgé bi da mirá cù and COP.IMPF.3SG also something beautiful.ADJ.UNM MOD look.INF how 1048 quèls

DEM.M.PL animal.PL work.IMPF.3PL how DEM.M.PL go.IMPF.3PL and 1049 ruassajvals a

COP.IMPF.3PL calm.M.PL and patient.M.PL

### 8 Texts

And it was also something nice to look at, how these animals worked, how they ... used to go and keep calm and patient.'

lura ... va iu lu èra ábar ... méz èls 1050 A a sùt. and then have.PRS.1sG 1sG then also but - put.PTCP.UNM 3M.PL to under 'And then ... but ... I also yoked them.'

lò, è 1051 A A ... ajl, and in.DEF.M.SG there COP.IMPF.3PL also then NEG SO SO SO nice.M.PL MOD 1052 cùn cùn cròtscha

go.INF with with plough.F.SG or with cart.M.SG

And ... in the, it was not so ... so nice to walk [with] them with a plough or a cart.'

1053 A A lo ... vajn nus gju savèns dificultats, gè. and there have.PRS.1PL 1PL have.PTCP.UNM often difficulty.F.PL yes

`And there ... we often had troubles, yes.'

1054 Bjè jèdaș șe șèni scapaj tga ah many time.pl be.prs.3pl.3pL escape.pTCP.M.PL SUBORD 1PL have.prs.1PL eh

1055 pròpi gju ah gròndas misérjas a mju quinau really have.PTCP.UNM eh big.F.PL trouble.PL and POSS.1SG.M.SG brother-in-law

 savèns: 1056 schèva, schèva say.IMPF.3SG say.IMPF.3sG often

> 'They escaped many times so that we had big troubles and my brother-in-law ... often said, said:'

1057 «Ah, cò èssan cùla véta, cò ah here be.PRS.1PL 1PL escape.PTCP.M.PL with.DEF.F.SG life here vèssans èssar mòrts.» 1058 sju

have.cond.1PL.1PL.can.PTCP.UNM COP.INF dead.M.PL

«Here we escaped with our lives, here we could have been dead.» '

1059 In' jèda èssan ... sén Tschamùt. nus staj one.F.SG time be.IMPF.1PL 1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL on PN

'Once we were in Tschamut.'

1060 Nus vèvan, ju vėva midau cumprau, ör 1SG have.IMPF.1PL 1SG have.IMPF.1SG buy.PTCP.UNM change.PTCP.UNM out … vèv' ju vandju in a 1061 İn, one.M.SG one.M.SG | have.IMPF.1sG 1sG sell.PTCP.UNM and buy.PTCP.UNM 1062 İn autar parquaj tgu vèva imprèssjun tga, tg' INDEF.M.SG other because SUBORD.1SG have.1sG DEF.F.SG impression COMP COMP bitg andrètg, 1063 quèl a salu COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.M.SG REL do.IMPF.3SG NEG right.ADJ.UNM and then 1064 èssan nus, vajn nus méz sùt èls, dòmasdús, be.IMPF.1PL 1PL have.PRS.1PL 1PL put.PTCP.UNM under 3PL.M both èra ad ju anzjaman api èssan 1065 al quinau nuși DEF.M.SG brother-in-law also and 1SG together and be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL 1066 sén Tschamùt, a sé spèr ustria on PN and up next\_to DEF.F.SG restaurant of PN have.prs.1PL 1067 parcadi gjú sél 1PL eh be.IMPF.1PL 1PL REFL.turn\_back.PTCP.M.PL down on.DEF.M.SG parking 1068 èssan nus samanaj. be.PRS.1PL 1PL REFL.turn back.PTCP.M.PL

'We had, I had bought, exchanged one, one ... I had sold and bought another because I had the impression that, that it was this one that didn't behave properly, and then we, we yoked them, both, I together with my brother-in-law were together and then we went up to Tschamut, and there next to the restaurant of Tschamut ... we eh ... we turned back, down on the parking space we turned back.'

1069 A schi glajti scù nus èssan staj sén la via so soon as 1PL be.PRS.1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL on DEF.F.SG way and so antschiat a galòpá. 1070 cantunala, òni cantonal have.PRS.3PL.3PL begin.PTCP.UNM COMP gallop.INF

'And as ... as soon as we were on the cantonal way they started to gallop.'

	- above PN

8 Texts

'And galloped, galloped, galloped, this was horrible, we only managed to hold onto them above Selva.'

*A* and *lu* then *vès* have.cond.1sg *ju* 1sg *bitga* neg *ugagjau* dare.ptcp.unm *plé,* more *da,* comp *dad* comp *ira* go.inf *cùn* with 1074 *èls vinanavaun.* 1075

3pl.m farther

'And then I wouldn't have dared to, to, to go farther with them any more.'


'We then tied them there, and then I went down for the trailer and then we … I went up … with the trailer.'


'And then … this was just for a bit, they were walking on the very left side of the road.'<sup>58</sup>


'On the very left, and they galloped terribly, I stood on the brake.'

*Al* def.m.sg *quinau* brother-in-law *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *ùm,* man *pròp'* really *in* indef.m.sg *ùm* man 1083 *fèrm.* 1084

strong.adj.m.sg

'My brother-in-law was a man, a really strong man.'

<sup>57</sup>Selva is located down in the valley, below the road.

<sup>58</sup>The left side is the side of the precipice if one comes up from e.g. Rueras.

1085 Lèz tanèva palas DEM.M.SG hold.IMPF.3SG on.DEF.F.PL reins.PL and impossible.ADJ.UNM

da fá stá 1086 nùnpussajval tgavals. impossible.ADJ.UNM COMP make.INF stop.INF DEM.M.PL two.M.PL horse.PL

'He held them by the reins, and [it was] impossible to have these two horses [i.e. the two mules] stop.'

1087 A A lu èra ... sé Tschamùt, cu antschiat and then COP.IMPF.3SG G Up PN when 3PL have.PRS.3PL begin.PTCP.UNM

galòpá, avaun mèssa 1088 grat stau ... ..., comp gallop.INF be.IMPF.3sG.EXPL just COP.PTCP.UNM before mass.F.SG

mèssa da sjantarmjas-dé èn caplùta da Sòntga Clau. 1089 INDEF.F.SG mass of afternoon.M.SG in chapel of Saint Nicholas

And then there was ... in Tschamut, when they began to gallop, there had just been a mass ... an afternoon mass in the chapel of St. Nicholas.'


'And then the priest, fortunately the people were already down [the valley] those who had attended the mass were already down – farther down than we were, that the, that the mules galloped.'

1094 ò staj prígal. DEM.M.PL be.PRS.3PL COP.PTCP.M.PL out of.DEF.M.SG danger

'These were out of danger.'

1095 Abar gl aucségnar èra in aucségnar tudèstg. but DEF.M.SG priest | COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG priest | German 'But the priest was a German priest.'

èr' 1096 A lèz avaun caplùta cu, cu, cu cu nuș essan and DEM.M.SG COP.IMPF.3SG in\_front chapel.F.SG when when 1PL be.PRS.1PL a 'l. o ò 1097 Vagní, détg come.PTCP.M.PL and then have.PRS.3SG 3SG.M have.PRS.3SG 3SG.M Say.PTCP.UNM 1098 e lu vagnús cùgl autò ... anòragjù cu 3sg.m be.prs.3sg then come.pTCP.M.sG with.DEF.M.sG car out down when als, als méls - a - a lu, a a ... 1099 nuș vèvan ... rantau 1SG have.IMPF.1PL - tie.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.PL DEF.M.PL mule.PL and then and 1100 vajn ju dumandau sch' èl nus, va then have.PRS.1PL 1PL have.PRS.1SG 1SG ask.PTCP.UNM if 3SG.M mè tòcan ... a Ruèras. prandéssi 1101 take.cond.INDIR.3sG 1sG until to PN

'And he was in front of the chapel when, when we came, and then he, he said - he then came with the car ... down when we had ... tied the, the mules - and then, and ... then we, I asked whether he could take me down to Rueras.'

tgéj ... désgrázja 1102 èl agi vju natural.F.SG.ADV 3sG.M have.PRS.SBJV.3SG see.PTCP.UNM what - accident.F.SG or tgé événimajn 1103 tgé, tgé nus ágian gju, what what 1PL have.PRS.SBJV.1PL have.PTCP.UNM what incident.M.SG | 1PL gju cùls méls. 1104 have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM with.DEF.M.PL mule.PL

`Of course, [he said] he had seen what ... accident or what what we had had, what event ... we had had with the mules.'

1105 èri avaun caplùta a vagi vju 3SG.M COP.IMPF.SBJV.3SG in front chapel and have.PRS.SBJV.3SG see.PTCP.UNM 1106 tga quèls méls èn saspuantaj, api

COMP DEM.M.PL mule.PL be.PRS.3PL REFL.frighten.PTCP.M.PL and

ėl a ... dad sí a ch vi ajn via 1107 Vagi have.PRS.SBJV.3SG 3SG.M think.PTCP.UNM COMP go.INF over on road.F.SG

1108 tanaj sé èls. and hold.INF up 3PL.M

> 'He was in front of the chapel and had seen that these mules ran away and he thought ... that he would go on the road ... and stop them.'

1109 Ábar èl vagi lura pandarau a tartgau but 3sG.M have.PRS.SBJv.3sG then think\_about.PTCP.UNM and think.PTCP.UNM na: 1110

no:

`But he had then thought about it and thought no:'

*«Da* here *hilft* helps *nur* only *noch* still *beten!»<sup>59</sup>* pray 1111

'«In this case only prayers may help!»'

*Ad* and *uschéja* so *vès* have.cond.1sg *ju,* 1sg *savès* can.cond.1sg *ju* 1sg *raquintá* tell.inf *in* indef.m.sg *tschùpal* lot 1112 *èvènimajnts* incident.m.pl *tg'* rel *èn* be.prs.3pl *schabagjaj* happen.ptcp.m.pl *cùn* with *quèls* dem.m.pl *méls.* mule.pl 1113

'And so I would, I could recount a lot of incidents that happened with these mules.'

### **8.8 Al sòntgè̱t dals gjadjus**

**The little chapel of the Jews** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, m5, aged 64) Recorded 2016/08/25 in Sedrun Duration 2'10"

*Al* def.m.sg *sòntgè̱t* little\_chapel *dals* of.def.m.pl *gjadjuṣ* Jew.pl *è* cop.prs.3sg *òdém* out\_most *al* def.m.sg 1114 *vitg da Sadrún.* 1115

village of pn

'The little chapel of the Jews is located at the lowest part of the village of Sedrun.'<sup>60</sup>

*Al* def.m.sg *sòntgè̱t,* sòntgèt *qu'* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *ina* indef.f.sg *pintga* little *caplùta.* chapel 1116

'The *sòntgè̱t* is a little chapel.'

*Ajn* in *quèla* dem.f.sg *caplùta* chapel *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *ajn* in *ina,* indef.f.sg *la* def.f.sg *quarta* fourth *stazjun* station *da* of 1117 *la* def.f.sg *via* way *da* of *la* def.f.sg *crusch.* cross 1118

'In this chapel there is a, the fourth station of Christ's way of the Cross.'

<sup>59</sup>Said in Standard German.

<sup>60</sup>On the *Via Alpsu* in direction Mustér.

*Nua<sup>61</sup>* where *Jésus* pn *végn* pass.aux.prs.3sg *gassaljaus,* flagellate.ptcp.m.sg *né?* right 1119

'Where Jesus is being flagellated, right?'

*A* and *lu* then *ṣchajnṣ* say.prs.1pl.1pl *adina* always *al* def.m.sg *... sòntgè̱t* little\_chapel *òdém* low\_most *al* def.m.sg 1120 *vitg.* 1121

village

'And then we always say the ... little chapel at the lowest part of the village.'


and dem.unm dem.unm be.prs.3sg actually remain.ptcp.unm right

'Well, now it is not at the lowest part of the village any more, but this chapel was once at the lowest part of the village, and this, this is still so, right?'


*lu ṣè 'l<sup>63</sup> saniastar.* 1128

then cop.prs.3sg 3sg.m left.adj.unm

'If you walk down the valley, ... the hotel Alpsu has in fact been renovated on the right side, right?, and then you walk maybe twenty more metres, and then it [the chapel] is on the left.'


<sup>61</sup>Not clear; therefore replaced by *nua* 'where'.

<sup>63</sup>*Vagní* is a performance error for *vagnú* 'pass.aux.ptcp.unm'

<sup>63</sup>*'l* is a performance error for *la* '3sg.f'

Figure 8.4: Christ's way of the Cross, Sedrun

'This is always open, and then you can step in and then you see these eh ... figures ... the size of human beings.'

è 1132 A qu' in ah, in Andreoli da, da Mustajr and DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG INDEF.M.SG eh INDEF.M.SG PN of of PN 1133 tg' èra usché in téc ah, gè, vèva talènt, REL COP.IMPF.3SG SO SO INDEF.M.SG bit eh yes have.IMPF.3SG talent.M.SG ò 1134 tagljau have.IMPF.3SG cut.PTCP.UNM out DEM.F.PL

'And this is a eh, a, [a man called] Andreoli from Mustér who was a little eh, yes, had talent, had chiselled these out.'

[PhM] *Da* of *tgei* which *temps?* time.m.sg 1135

'[PhM] At what time?'

[m5] *Ah,* eh *méli* thousand *ad* and *òtg* eight *… tgu* rel.1sg *craj* believe.prs.1sg *ṣè* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm 1136

*Vèndardís* Friday.m.sg *Sògn* Holy *mili* thousand *ad* and *òtg* eight *tschian* hundred *trènta* thirty *quátar,* four *fòrsa* maybe *scha* if *ju* 1sg 1137


'[m5] Ah, eighteen hundred ... it was on Good Friday 1834, maybe, if I am not wrong, yes, when these figures were transported and put into this little chapel.'

*Ad* and *ál'* in.def.f.sg *antschata* beginning *èra* cop.impf.3sg *'l* def.m.sg *sòntgè̱t* little\_chapel *... in* indef.m.sg 1140 *sòntgè̱t* little\_chapel *aviart,* open.m.sg *quaj* dem.unm *vut* want.prs.3sg *dí* say.inf *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg 1141 *in* indef.m.sg *pin* small.m.sg *baghètg,* building *a* and *cò* there *èr'* exist.impf.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *gártar,* grating 1142 *a* and *lu* then *vasèvas* see.impf.2sg.gnr *té* 2sg.gnr *ajn* in *quèlas.* dem.f.pl 1143

'And at the beginning the little chapel ... was an open chapel, which means that it is a small building, and there there was a grating, and then you [could] see these [figures] therein.'

	- year twenty-eight hold.prs.1sg 1sg yes

And then, in addition, they built another part next to the chapel, then there are ... some small benches, yes, interesting, yes, and also built a clock tower in [19]28 I think, yes.'

 vò anavùs sén ina 1148 Quaj tradizjun tga ... DEM.UNM go.PRS.3SG back on INDEF.F.SG tradition REL ira64 ... a pèlègrinádi 1149 Tuatschíns èran a inhabitant\_of\_Tujetsch.M.PL be.IMPF.3PL go.INF at pilgrimage.M.SG to 1150 Nossa-Dunaun, a a lu lu vovas lò vas and then go.PRS.2SG.GNR there somewhere go.PRS.2SG.GNR PN 1151 té ah, sur in pas, álsò in, in șur in, 2SG.GNR OVER INDEF.M.SG eh over INDEF.M.SG pass well INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG sémpal pas, a sén quèla, 1152 crest, in high\_ground INDEF.M.SG simple pass and on DEM.F.SG on DEM.M.SG pass 1153 duèssi èssar samagljònta caplùta, è cun should.COND.3SG.EXPL COP.INF INDEF.F.SG similar chapel also with stazjun da ... da la 1154 via da la crusch, a INDEF.F.SG station of of DEF.F.SG way of DEF.F.SG cross and then quèls vagní anavùs ajn Tujétsch a détg: 1155 Se be.PRS.3SG DEM.M.PL come.PTCP.M.PL back in PN and say.PTCP.UNM

'This goes back to a tradition that ... some inhabitants of Tujetsch had gone ... on a pilgrimage to Einsiedeln, and then you go there somewhere, you go over a, eh, over a pass, rather a high ground, a simple pass, and on this, on this pass there should be a similar chapel, also with a station of ... of Christ's way to the Cross, and then they came back to Tujetsch and said:'

1156 «Usché zatgé fagjajn nuș è a Sadrún.» something make.PRS.1PL 1PL also in PN SO

'We'll also make something like this in Sedrun.'

 è tùt schabagjau sén basa 1157 A quaj and DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG all happen.PTCP.UNM on base.F.SG private thus stada tòcan avaun fòrsa déjsch òns 1158 quèla DEM.F.SG chapel be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.F.SG until before maybe ten > year.M.PL privat. 1159

private.ADJ.UNM

<sup>64</sup> Èran ira 'had go' is a performance error for èran í 'had gone'.

8 Texts

'And this all happened on a private basis, this chapel has thus been private until maybe ten years ago.'

*Ad* and *ùṣ* now *ò* have.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *plajv* parish *surpríu* take.ptcp.unm *aj.* 3sg 1160

'And now the parish has taken it over.'

*Agl* def.m.sg *Andréòli* pn *vèva* have.impf.3sg *finju* finish.ptcp.unm *… las* def.f.pl *... figuras* figure.pl <sup>1161</sup> *…*

*avaun* before *ca* rel *la* def.f.sg *caplùta* chapel *èra* be.impf.3sg *stada* pass.aux.ptcp.f.sg *finida.* finish.ptcp.f.sg 1162

'Andreoli had finished ... the ... figures ... before the chapel was finished.'


'And then they stored these, these statues they had stored in the presbytery.'

*Ála* in.def.f.sg *véglja-véglja* red~old *tgèsa-parvènda,* presbytery *né?* right 1165

'At the very old presbytery, right?'


*quèlas ah figuras ò inṣ adina détg «la* 1168

dem.f.pl eh figure.pl have.prs.3sg gnr always say.ptcp.unm def.f.sg *stiva* living\_room *dals* of.def.m.pl *gjadjus»,* Jew.pl *ò* have.prs.3sg *quèla* dem.f.sg *gju* have.ptcp.unm *nùm* name 1169 *sjantar.* 1170

after 'And [since] the year they stored these eh figures one has always said «the living

room of the Jews», has it been called since.'

### **8.9 La féjra da Ligjaun**

### **The market in Lugano**

(Tuatschín, Sadrún, m5, aged 65) Recorded 2016/08/25 in Sedrun Duration 2'


there

'This cattle business, in the sense of how it was in the nineteenth century, that the merchants would buy the animals already during spring, then those one-year-old calves, the two-year-old calves, the one-year-old calves would go to the mountain pastures, and after that period, during autumn, they would go and fetch them and would then go with them over the Lucmagn pass and would sell them there.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg *lu* then *radù̱n,* around *quaj* dem.unm *mava* go.impf.3sg *ò* out *da* of *Tujétsch,* pn 1179 *mavi* go.impf.3sg.expl *radù̱n* around *duatschían,* two\_hundred *fòrsa* maybe *antù̱rn* around *duatschían* two\_hundred *tgaus.* head.m.pl 1180

'There would go about, there would go then out of the Tujetsch valley, there would go about two hundred, maybe about two hundred heads [of animals].'

*A* and *qu'* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *atgnamajn* actually *al* def.m.sg *... sulèt* only.m.sg *danè* money *... quasi* almost 1181 *tg'* rel *al* def.m.sg *pur* farmer *vèva* have.impf.3sg *blùt* naked.adj.m.sg *danè,* money *né.* right 1182

'And this is at least almost the ... only cash money ... the farmers had, right?'

### 8 Texts

1183 Quaj èra atgnamajn la DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG actually DEF.F.SG source D DEF.F.SG most important 1184 of business.M.SG DEM.F.SG market of PN

This was actually the most important source of business, that market in Lugano."

 1185 Alsò quaj, quaj lura, ajn Tujétsch èri well DEM.UNM DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG then in PN 1186 usché da quèls SO right or 1187 quèls las DEM.M.PL negotiator.PL DEM.M.PL eh do.IMPF.3PL then so\_to\_speak DEF.F.PL 1188 préfatschèntas, né, né tg'èran intermediate\_trade.PL right or REL PASS.AUX.IMPF.3PL | commission.PTCP.M.PL 1189 da quèls ah martgadònts gròns da la bassa, né.

by DEM.M.PL eh businessman.PL big.PL of DEF.F.SG «lowlands» right 'Well, this is then, in the Tujetsch Valley there were some negotiators, well

these «Unterhändler», right? These negotiators, they would so to speak do the intermediate trade, or they were ... commissioned by the big businessmen from outside the Grisons, right?'

1190 Ouèls vèvan in téc maun quasi DEM.M.PL have.IMPF.3PL so\_to\_speak a bit hand.M.SG free.M.SG right SUBORD las 1191 fá quasi sur

do.INF DEF.F.PL shopping.PL right and then go.IMPF.3SG.EXPL so\_to\_say over 1192 quèls


'These had so to speak a bit of a free hand, right, to do the shopping, right, and then business was in the hands of the domestic merchants, right, and there were

<sup>65</sup> Fiara is Standard Sursilvan for féjra.

<sup>66</sup> German for Tuatschin mulissiars.

always some of these negotiators from the Tujetsch valley, right, those who dared and risked [to do] this.'

*Álṣò* well *… la* def.f.sg *résca* risk *èra* cop.impf.3sg *atgnamajn* in\_fact *fétg* very *grònda,* big.f.sg *parquaj* because *tga* subord <sup>1195</sup> *… èls* 3pl.m *cumpravan* buy.impf.3pl *gè* in\_fact *... la* def.f.sg *prmavèra, ̩* spring *a* and *lura* then *savèvani* know.impf.3pl.3pl 1196 *bégja* neg *cù* how *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *'l* def.m.sg *préci,* price *cù* how *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *féjra* market 1197 *insùma,* at\_all *ṣai* cop.prs.3sg.expl *atractif,* attractive.adj.unm *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg *tschèrca* demand *cò,* here 1198 *né.* 1199

right

'Well, the risk was in fact very big, because … in fact they used to buy ... during spring, and then they wouldn't know how the price would be, what the market was supposed to be, whether it would be attractive at all, would there be some demand, right?'

*A* and *lu* then *mávani* go.impf.3pl.3pl *magari* sometimes *culs* with.def.m.pl *tiars* animal.pl *gjù* down *a* to *Ligjaun,* pn 1200 *a* and *... savèvan* can.impf.3pl *bigja* neg *vèndar* sell.inf *lò,* there *a* and *lu* then *stèvani* must.impf.3pl.3pl *quasi* so\_to\_speak 1201 *í* go.inf *gjùdòra,* down\_out *ir* go.inf *tòc'* until *al* def.m.sg *nòrd* north *da* of *l'* def.f.sg *Italja* pn *gjùdajn* down\_in *ad* and 1202 *ampruá* try.inf *da* comp *vèndar,* sell.inf *ah* eh *... ad* and *aj* expl *ah* eh *... vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *bigj'* neg *éba* precisely 1203 *vandju* sell.ptcp.unm *tùt,* everything *al* def.m.sg *davùs* last *stuèvani* must.impf.3pl.3pl *vèndar* sell.inf *fòrsa* maybe *pr,̩* for 1204 *pr̩ in schliat prézi, né.* 1205

for indef.m.sg bad.m.sg price right

'And then they would go sometimes down to Lugano and … could not sell there, and then they had so to speak to go outside [the country], to go until the North of Italy and try to sell, eh ... and then they could not sell all [the animals] after all, and in the end they would have to sell maybe for, for a bad price, right?'

*Álṣò* well *i* expl *dèva* exist.impf.3sg *òns* year.m.pl *nùca* where *tga* rel *gudignavan* earn.impf.3pl *... nùndétg,* incredibly *ad* and 1206 *i* expl *ṣèra* exist.impf.3sg *òns* year.m.pl *nùca* where *tg'* rel *èra* exist.impf.3sg *aua,* water.f.sg *ad* and 1207

èra òns nùca tga spardévan. 1208 EXIST.IMPF.3SG year.M.PL where REL lose.IMPF.3PL

'Well, there were years when they earned ... a lot of money, and there were years with rain, and years when they would lose money.'

Gadola, scriv' è quaj 1209 Quaj zanú, write.PRS.3sG also DEM.UNM somewhere DEM.UNM Write.PRS.3SG PN ina, lavur, «La 1210 quèla è zatgéj DEM.F.SG COP.PRS.3SG something DEF.F.SG INDEF.F.SG work DEF.F.SG market of 1211 Ligjaun»67, a Tujétsch PN and then describe.PRS.3SG 3SG.F out\_of sight of.DEF.M.SG PN 1212 scù quaj a lu how DEM.UNM function.IMPF.3SG how 3PL go.IMPF.3PL and then 1213 è quèls sén ah, ah, sén EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL also DEM.M.PL danger REL EXIST.IMPF.3SG on eh eh on 1214 anavùs scha savèvan go.INF natural.M.SG.ADV when 3PL come.IMPF.3PL back CORR know.IMPF.3PL cugljúns, nara, né, savèvan è 1215 als DEF.M.PL scoundrel.PL right DEF.F.SG mad\_people.COLL right know.IMPF.3PL also 1216 quèls lura DEM.M.PL have.PRS.3PL | wallet.F.PL full.PL | right and PASS.AUX.IMPF.3PL then 1217 pr part atacaj ad angulaj. for part.F.SG attack.PTCP.M.PL and steal.PTCP.M.PL

'This Gadola writes, writes also this somewhere this, the, this is a, a work with the title «La fiera da Ligjaun», and this work describes from the point of view of the Tujetsch valley how this used to function, how they used to go, and then there were these dangers which [one encountered] when travelling, of course when they would come back, the scoundrels, the madmen, right, they also knew that those had full wallets, right, and they were sometimes attacked and got robbed.'

1218 Quaj ỏi dau savèns, gè. DEM.UNM have.PRS.3SG.EXPL EXIST.PTCP.UNM often > yes

'This happened often, yes.'

<sup>67</sup> The title is in Standard Sursilvan.

### 8.10 Sé Nalps

In Nalps (Tuatschín, Surajn, f5, aged 56) Recorded 2017/03/10 in Surrein Duration 1'10

1219 nuș èran buébas, èri bja autar when 1PL COP.IMPF.1PL girl.F.PL COP.IMPF.3SG.EXPL much different.ADJ.UNM

tgé ùssa. 1220 than now

'When we were girls, it was very different from nowadays.'

gjaniturs fagèvan 1221 Als DEF.M.PL parent.PL do.IMPF.3PL DEF.M.SG farmer and 1SG COP.IMPF.1SG


1226 vagnévi in in in car, from time to time come.IMPF.3SG.EXPL INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG INDEF.M.SG bus

 vèvàn naturálmajn 1227 a a quèls and DEM.M.PL have.IMPF.3PL natural.M.SG.ADV pleasure.M.SG of 1PL and

1228 tgauras. of.DEF.F.PL goat.PL

> 'My parents were farmers, and I was a goatherd for a certain time, at the beginning with my brother, one year alone, and one had to go with the goats as far as Nalps, and we had a great time there, there came ... then there weren't tourists yet, from time to time a a a bus arrived, and it was, of course, a pleasure for them to be with us and the goats.'

1229 Mintgataun mavan a a cavá sometimes go.IMPF.1PL 1PL also in.DEF.F.PL steep\_slope.PL SUBORD dig.INF 1230 cristalas anstagl mirá dlas nus crystal.F.PL instead look\_for.INF of.DEF.F.PL goat.PL and come.IMPF.1PL 1PL

### 8 Texts

1231 halt in téc tart. simply INDEF.M.SG bit late

> 'From time to time we would also ... go farther up to extract crystals instead of looking after the goats, and then we would come back a bit late.'

anavùs èri 1232 A A cu cu ins vagnéva bigja schi flòt and when GNR come.IMPF.3SG back COP.IMPF.3SG.EXPL NEG so nice.ADJ.UNM cò cù cu 'ls 1233 pr, cu ins vagnéva purs vagnévan a for when GNR come.IMPF.3SG here when DEF.M.PL farmer.PL come.IMPF.3PL and 1234 cun nus, ni tumévan par nus, api stèvan get\_angry.IMPF.3PL with 1PL or be\_afraid.IMPF.3PL for 1PL and must.IMPF.1PL 1235 Snus vagní múlgjar tút las

1PL come.INF to house.F.SG and SUBORD milk.INF all DEF.F.PL goat.PL And when we came back, it wouldn't be that nice for us, when one came here,

when the farmers would come and get angry at us, or were worried because of us, and then we had to go home and milk all the goats.'

1236 Als gjaniturs vèvan aun pòrs, stèvan få DEF.M.PL parent.PL have.IMPF.3PL in\_addition pig.PL must.IMPF.1PL do.INF

 è naturálmajn ùssa samidau 1237 gljèz, a quaj DEM.UNM and DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG of\_course - now REFL.change.PTCP.UNM 1238 bjè.

a lot

'My parents, in addition, had pigs, and we had to look after them, and nowadays this has of course changed a lot.'


'From then up to, but it was a nice time. And today they don't even let the children go, we would go when we were five years old, we were goatherds, and nowadays, yes.

[PhM] *Aber* but *la* def.f.sg *notg* night *buc,* neg *la* def.f.sg *notg…* night 1243

'But at night not, at night …'


'No, no, we would then come back, and then every week there was somebody who would give us a meal, and in the evening we could go to this person for dinner.'

*A* and *quaj* dem.unm *midava* change.impf.1sg *mintg'* every.f.sgweek *jamna* be\_allowed.impf.1pl *stgèvan* 1pl 1247

*nuṣ* go.inf *í* to *tiar* one.m.sg *in,* and *a* def.f.sg *l'* other *autr'* week *jamna* change.impf.3sg.expl *midavi* down *gjù* to 1248 <sup>1249</sup> *tschèl.*

*tiar* dem.m.sg

> 'And this would change every week we had to go to one, and the other week it would change to the other.'

*Na* no *na,* no *a* and *durmí* sleep.inf *durmévan* sleep.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *cò.* here 1250

'No, no, and as for sleeping, we would sleep here.'

*Nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *la* def.f.sg *damaun* morning *api* and *vagnévan* come.impf.1pl *la* def.f.sg *sèra.* evening 1251

'We would go in the morning and come back in the evening.'

*Qu'* dem.unm *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *bi* beautiful.m.sg.unm *tjams.* time 1252

'This was a wonderful time.'


'Yes, as many other things that also have changed. That's how things are.'

8 Texts

## **8.11 Al davùs purtgè da Sadrún**

```
The last swineherd of Sedrun
```
(Tuatschín, Sadrún, m6, aged 65) Recorded 2016/08/23 in Sedrun Duration 5'50"

*Ju* 1sg *savès* can.cond.1sg *raquintá,* tell.inf *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *stauṣ* cop.ptcp.m.sg *al* def.m.sg *davùs* last 1255

*purtgè* swineherd *… da* of *Sadrún,* pn *cun* with *aun* in\_addition *in* indef.m.sg *in* indef.m.sg *in* indef.m.sg 1256

*camarat.* mate 1257

'I could tell, I was the last swineherd … of Sedrun, together with a mate.'


'And we would go up to Valtgeva with the pigs, every day up and down, I could tell you about that.'

*Qu'* dem.unm *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *… matʰaj* probably *… gl* def.m.sg *òn* year *avaun* before *ca* rel 1260

*tgu* rel.1sg *mòndi* go.prs.sbjv.1sg *… ál'* to.def.f.sg *ampréma* first *classa.* form 1261

'This was … probably … the year before I attended … the first form [of primary school].'

*Sùnd* be.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *sapladjus* sign\_on.refl.ptcp.m.sg *cun* with *in* def.m.sg *ah* eh *coléga* mate *… è* also *da* from 1262

*Sadrún,* pn *a* and *… lèz* dem.m.sg *èra* be.impf.3sg *schòn* already *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *l'* def.f.sg *ampréma* first 1263 *classa.* 1264

term

'I got employed with a eh mate … also from Sedrun, and … he had already attended the first term [of primary school].'


'And the two of us took over [the duty] of working as the swineherd of Sedrun, at Gionda .'

 vùl 1267 dí qu' èra lu al DEM.UNM Want.PRS.3SG say.INF DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG then DEF.M.SG 1268 tgau-vitg, quèl vèva pladjú nus. head.M.SG-village.M.SG DEM.M.SG have.IMPF.3SG employ.PTCP.UNM 1PL

'This means, this was the head of the village who had employed us.'

bitg tgé piaglja nuș vajn 1269 Ju Sa álso gju, 1SG know.PRS.1SG NEG what salary.F.SG 1SG have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM well 1270 ina pintga piáglja, parquaj, gljèz gju

1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG small salary therefore DEM.UNM 1271 raquint' ju al davùs. 

tell.PRS.1SG 1SG DEF.M.SG last

'I don't know what salary we got, well, we got a small salary; therefore, this I'll tell at the end.'

	- drove.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.PL cow.PL drove.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.PL alp.PL CORR

1275

pig.PL

'And then ... we had to ... during summer when I drove the cows, drove them to the summer pastures, we also had to ... drove our pigs.'

dí, nus vèvan 1276 Quaj vul èxact végn pors, DEM.UNM want.PRS.3SG say.INF 1PL have.PRS.1PL exactly twenty pig.M.PL 1277 quaj sa ju ... tschian procènt. DEM.UNM know.PRS.1SG 1SG 1SG | hundred percent.M.SG

'This means, we had exactly twenty pigs, this I know one hundred percent.'

### 8 Texts


'And the two of us had to go and collect these pigs, take out, let them out, out of the barn.'

1280 Duș lu vin Gjónda craju, two.M.PL COP.IMPF.3PL over\_in PN

1281 pèr vi Sadrún, 1SG DEM.M.PL Over PN,


1284 or half.F.SG DEF.F.PL nine eight or so,

"Two were over there in Gionda I believe, then I droved those to Sedrun, and some were in Sedrun, we had ... to drove the pigs out of the barn ourselves, and then collect them, and that was maybe around ... eight or so, or half past eight.'

1285 Má tga ... avaun nus èra tgavrè èra schòn sagir al since subord before 1PL be.IMPF.3SG sure DEF.M.SG goatherd also already tgauras, lèz 1286 culas go.PTCP.M.SG with.DEF.F.PL goat.PL DEM.M.SG go.IMPF.3SG then also

'Since ... before us the goatherd had certainly already gone with the goats, he also used to go.'

1287 A ... viars anòr'sé da Val Strém ajn. and towards out\_up of valley.F.SG PN

'And upwards into the Strem Valley.'


1290 pastira sé tòcan sé Valtgèva. pasture up until up PN

And we collected those twenty pigs, and we had to drove them quite a long way, from Sedrun up, from the pasture up to Valtgeva."

 lèzs 1291 Ussa ... pòrs quaj, èn ualti pig.M.PL Who REL know.PRS.3SG DEM.UNM DEM.M.PL COP.PRS.3PL quite now da, da cocatschá de èls, coda a da dada dadaí a co cun èls, 1292 obstinate.PTCP.M.PL MOD MOD drove.INF 3PL.M MOD MOD go.INF with 3PL.M 1293 quaj bigj' in animal scù ina tgaura né DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG NEG INDEF.M.SG animal like INDEF.F.SG goat or vaca, quèls èn bégja andisaj, èls 1294 INDEF.F.SG COW DEM.M.PL COP.PRS.3PL NEG used to.PTCP.M.PL 3PL.M ad ùs ùs tùtajnína stùni 1295 ajn nuégl, antschajvar COP.PRS.3PL in pigsty.M.SG and now suddenly must.PRS.3PL.3PL begin.INF ad í. 1296

COMP go.INF

`Now ... pigs ..., those who know that, they are quite obstinate when one droves them, when one goes with them, this is not an animal like a goat or a cow, they are not used to it, they are in the pigsty, and now suddenly they must start going.

1297 Ajn tùta cas mia, mia mùma a a chla a chu mùma da in every case.M.SG POSS.1SG.F.SG POSS.1SG.F.SG mother and DEF.F.SG mother of còlèga tg'èra è 1298 POSS.1SG.M.SG mate REL COP.IMPF.3SG also with 1sG J have.IMPF.3PL 1299 Stju gidá pèr must.PTCP.UNM help.INF 1PL INDEF.M.SG couple day.M.PL SUBORD drove.INF 1300 èls a a rimná quèls quèls a pòrs, a catschè èls sédòra. 3PL.M and gather.INF DEM.M.PL pig.PL and drove.INF 3PL up

Anyhow my, my mother and the mother of my mate who was with me ... had had to help us for a couple of days ... to drove them and gather these pigs, and drove them up.'

1301 tga quèls tgi drètg a saniastar, a lu, since SUBORD DEM.M.PL run away.IMPF.3sG who right and left and then 1302 ad al problèm gròn èra cu nus mavan ajnasé and DEF.M.SG problem big COP.IMPF.3SG when 1PL go.IMPF.1PL in\_and\_up 1303 on top DEF.F.SG pasture of PN

### 8 Texts

tral Drun, quèl, 1304 through.DEF.M.PL PN DEM.M.SG DEF.M.SG torrent REL come.PRS.3SG cò, a a tral Drun, a qu' qu' e 1305 gjùadòra down\_and\_out here and through.DEF.M.SG PN and DEM.UNM EXIST.IMPF.3SG 1306 lu mu in pin trùtg, a then only INDEF.M.SG small path and after 1307 gjassa sédòra tòcan sé Valtgèva. narrow\_path up\_and\_out until up PN

'Since they would run away to the right or to the left, and then, the biggest problem was when we would go up to the top of the pasture of Sedrun, we had to go down through the river Drun, this, the torrent that comes down here, and through the Drun, there was only a small path, and after this via a small path for the cattle up to Valtgeva.

1308 and cope.INF DEF.M.SG first.PL day.PL DEM.M.PL pig.PL down from from 1309 DEM.M.SG path into\_and\_down and after through DEF.F.SG water of.DEF.M.SG 1310 Drun tgal vagnéva PN REL COME.IMPF.3SG only little over of DEM.F.SG side DEM.UNM. be.PRS.3SG álsó in martéri, a nus vajn da 1311 stau gju COP.PTCP.UNM Well INDEF.M.SG ordeal and 1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM to mia mùma è ju sa, 1312 Samudarge, REFL.struggle.INF 1SG know.PRS.1SG POSS.1SG.F.SG mother be.PRS.3SG piartg tg' èra 1313 sjantar in scapaus, run.PTCP.F.SG after INDEF.M.SG pig REL be.IMPF.3SG run\_away.PTCP.M.SG aun bégn tg'èl' èra 1314 ad ju Sa vagnida

and 1sG know.PRS.1sG still well REL 3sG.F be.IMPF.3sG become.PTCP.F.SG 1315 tùt còtschna, ad èla vèva gju da fá

completely red.F.SG and 3SG.F have.IMPF.3SG have.PTCP.UNM to do.INF

cùr, cul magari 1316 téc with.DEF.M.SG heart 3SG.F have.IMPF.3SG sometimes INDEF.M.SG bit

1317 pròblèms cùr, da suaqu' conse èra stau par problem.M.PL with.DEF.M.SG heart and DEM.UNM be.IMPF.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM for 1318 èla mèmja hèfti.

3sG.F too violent.ADJ.UNM

<sup>68</sup> suenter is Standard Sursilvan for sjantar.

'And the first days, to cope with these pigs [going] down this path and then through the water of the Drun, of which only few would go over to the other side, well, this was an ordeal, and we had to struggle, I know, my mother ran after a pig that had run away, and I still remember very well that she had turned completely red, and she had had heart problems, she sometimes had some problems with her heart, and this had been too violent for her.'

1319 Ábar èla èra lu ... pulit but 3SG.F have.IMPF.3sG then nevertheless still become.PTCP.F.SG quite 1320 gju lò old.F.SG because of DEM.UNM but 3SG.F have.IMPF.3SG have.PTCP.UNM there hèfti ad ... 1321 İna, 

INDEF.F.SG INDEF.M.SG violent and

'But she nevertheless got ... quite old. Because of that, but she then had had there a, a, violent, and ... . .

1322 A quaj è rastau da mé, a and DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG remain.PTCP.UNM DAT 1SG and then after pèr 1323 İn nus savju dumignā INDEF.M.SG couple day.M.PL | have.PRS.1PL 1PL can.PTCP.UNM cope.INF 1324 quèls pors ... tga mavan . DEM.M.PL pig.PL REL go.IMPF.3PL proper.ADJ.UNM and then go.IMPF.3SG 1325 one.M in\_front and then go.IMPF.3PL DEM.M.PL pig.PL all in single\_file.F.SG 1326 da Aquaj from DEM.M.SG path in\_and\_down over through DEF.F.SG water and up until sé Valtgèva. 1327

up PN

'And I still remember this, and then ... after a couple of days ... we were able to cope with these pigs ... which would move properly, and then ... one would move in front and then the other pigs would follow in single file ... down this path and through the water up to Valtgeva.'

1328 lò and up PN when 1PL COP.IMPF.1PL through EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL there gjajna, a 1329 aviart INDEF.F.SG door INDEF.F.SG gate - and when 1PL have.PRS.1PL open.PTCP.UNM 1330 pòrs. DEF.F.SG gate can.IMPF.1PL 1PL close.INF DEF.F.SG gate of.DEF.M.PL pig.PL

### 8 Texts

*stèvans* stay.impf.1pl.1pl *sé* up *cò* here *ajn* in *quaj* dem.m.sg *plat,* flat *a* and *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *da* to *fá* do.inf 1331 *ajnsassèz* actually *… nagina* no.f.sg *lavur,* work *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *ina* indef.f.sg *bjala* beautiful *véta.* life 1332

'And up in Valtgeva, when we were through … there was a door there, a gate, and when we opened the gate, we could close the pig's gate, we could stay up there on this flat ground, and actually … we had nothing to do, we had a wonderful life.'

*A* and *lu* then *la* def.f.sg *sèra* evening *… stèvan* must.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *rimná* gather.inf *als* def.m.pl *pòrs,* pig.pl *a* and 1333

*lu* then *vagnévan* come.impf.3pl *gjù* down *cù̱ntar* towards *la* def.f.sg *gjajna,* gate *a* and *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *da* comp 1334 *dumbrá.* 1335

count.inf

'And then in the evening we had to gather the pigs, and then we came down to the gate and had to count [them].'


'And I know, I hadn't attended the first class yet, I had difficulties counting these pigs from one to twenty.'

*Ju* 1sg *vèva* have.impf.1sg *bigja* neg *aun* yet *ampríu,* learn.ptcp.unm *ajn* in *scùlèta* nursery\_school.f.sg 1339

*amprandèvan* learn.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *pauc.* little 1340

'I hadn't learned yet, we didn't learn much in nursery school.'


'Well … I had troubles in counting [from] one to twenty, in ensuring that we had all the pigs.'


"This was, I was also proud of my first job, because ... the last day, when I drove the pigs down, my mate's father came with – he had a unimog – came with us to Valtgèva, and the mothers had prepared bunches of flowers ... for the pigs, and had ... so with ... bunches of flowers, tied a rope around, and put them around the belly of the pigs.'

gjù da Valtgèva fòrsa coun tschun sis pòrs, 1354 A A nuș vagni and 1PL come.PTCP.M.PL down from PN 1355 cun sé matg.

with up bunch.M.

'And we would come down from Valtgeva with maybe five or six pigs, with their bunches of flowers.'

<sup>69</sup> mats is a phonetically simplified form of matgs 'bundles'

### 8 Texts

1356 bjala flur, and 1PL two.M also with DEF.F.SG hat with on INDEF.F.SG beautiful flower scargjá 0 da 'ls è 1357 and COMP drove\_down.INF DEF.M.PL pig.PL SO DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG 1358 Stau pr nus in aparti avanimajn. COP.PTCP.UNM for 1PL INDEF.M.SG special event

'And also the two of us with the hats with a beautiful flower on them, and to drove down the pigs in such a way, that was a special event for us.'

1359 Ad ad in piartg ... ah ... vèva sé pudju scapá and and INDEF.M.SG pig la sajf, qu' er' 1360 Valtgèva tras ina, la through DEF.F.SG fence DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG PN 1361 Sajv èr' ina, la sajv vèva rùt fence COP.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG fence have.IMPF.3SG break.PTCP.UNM palé, quaj vèva atrás, 1362 İn pudju a quaj INDEF.M.SG post DEM.UNM have.IMPF.3SG can.PTCP.UNM through and DEM.UNM 1363 ... Vèz' ju aun òz, quaj quaj piartg èra jus atrás see.PRS.1SG 1SG still today DEM.M.SG pig | be.IMPF.3SG go.PTCP.M.SG through vèva rùt gjù a al matg tga 1364 and have.IMPF.3SG break.PTCP.UNM down DEF.M.SG bunch SUBORD 1365 mù la còrda plé antùrn. have.IMPF.3SG only DEF.F.SG rope more around

'And and a pig ... eh ... had been able to escape in Valtgeva through the fence, that was a, the fence was, had a broken post, so it had been able to go through, and this ... I still see it today, this pig had gone through and had broken the bunch of flowers so that he only had the rope around [his belly].'

ka cun gròn 1366 A, nus dascargjau plaschaj, and and then have.PRS.1PL 1PL drove\_down.PTCP.UNM with big.M.SG pleasure 1367 guaj è naturálmajn ònur. DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG natural.M.SG.ADV INDEF.F.SG honour

1368 dascargjau als pors. drove\_down.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.PL pig.PL

> 'And, and then we drove down [the pigs] with great pleasure, this is naturally an honour, drove down the pigs.'

<sup>70</sup> Scargjà is Standard Sursilvan for scargjè.

1369 lu and then because of DEF.F.SG wage 1 1PL have.IMPF.1PL then to go.INF 1370 ad incassá.

SUBORD collect.INF

'And then, because of the wage, we had to go and collect [the money].'

1371 Da mintga pur stèvans í a schafla vèvo of every farmer.M.SG must.IMPF.1PL.1PL go.INF and if 3SG.M have.IMPF.3SG 'l dus, 1372 gju have.pTCP.UNM two.M must.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M pay.INF = two.M pig.PL or one.M or 1373 uschéa ... ábar ju sa bigja còns SO but 1sG know.PRS.1sG NEG how\_many cent.PL 1PL have.IMPF.1PL ... d'incassá, 1374 gju have.PTCP.UNM to collect.INF maybe two.M probably five franc.M.PL per

1375 piartg.

pig.M.SG

'We had to go to every farmer and if he had given two, he should [pay] more ... two pigs or one or so ... but I don't know how much money we ... had to collect, probably two ... maybe five francs for each pig.'

pur pur èr' 1376 A tiar in nus í. ju. and by INDEF.M.SG farmer ... be.PRS.1SG 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL be.IMPF.1SG 1SG 1377 vèv' ju gju dad incassá have.IMPF.1sG 1sG have.pTCP.UNM to collect.INF DEM.M.PL cent.PL and 1378 quèl vèva bégja grad munajda ad usché vinavaun, a DEM.M.SG have.IMPF.3SG NEG currently coin.F.SG and so quaj 1379 quèl ad ju DEM.M.SG have.PRS.3SG DEM.M.SG moment NEG give.PTCP.UNM and 1SG 1380 lu quaj, ábar mia mùma have.prs.1sG then forget.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM but POSS.1sG.F.SG mother detg, aun òns ỏ aun 1381 have.prs.3sG moreover say.PTCP.UNM still year.M.PL and year.M.PL after

'And we went ... to a farmer, I was, I had to collect this money, and he didn't have coins at that moment, and so on, and I then forgot about that, but my mother said, even many years later:'

<sup>71</sup> Còns raps nus vèvan replaces an unintelligible part.

<sup>72</sup> En is a performance error for essan.

### 8 Texts


look after.PTCP.UNM

'This one should still pay you the money for the pig you had looked after'.

vèv' 1385 Alsò quèl ju bégja vagnús d'incassá. well DEM.M.SG have.IMPF.1SG 1SG NEG come.PTCP.M.SG to collect.INF

` Well, I didn't succeed in collecting the money from that farmer'.

 vèvan nu- incassau 1386 Abar tschaj a naturálmajn but - DEM.UNM have.IMPF.1PL 1PL collect.PTCP.UNM and natural.M.SG.ADV gjù 1387 bap ni da


'But the other [money] we had collected and of course handed over all the money to father or mother.

1389 Ou' èra clar. nus vèvan nagins raps DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG clear.ADJ.UNM 1PL have.IMPF.1PL no.M.PL cent.PL sèzs. 1390

"This was clear, we didn't have any money of our own."

	- DEF.F.SG job DEM.F.SG whole summer

self.M.PL

'But this was my first job, and all are very proud and there is a photograph in which I am with my mate the day of the pig droving, two young boys who had done this job the whole summer.'

[PhM] *Ti* 2sg *vevas* have.impf.2sg *sis* six *onns* year.m.pl *fòrsa,* maybe *ni* or *tschun* five <sup>1396</sup> *?*

'[PhM] You were maybe six years old, or five?'

[m6] *Ju* 1sg *vèva,* have.impf.1sg *gè* yes *sis.* six *Má* since *tga* subord *cun* with *sjat* seven *vas* go.prs.2sg.gnr *lu* then *a* to 1397 *scùla.* 1398

school.f.sg

'[m6] I was six years old, yes. Since you go to school when you are seven years old.'

### **8.12 Al cégn**

**The swan** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, m8, aged 40) Recorded 2017/06/22 in Bern Duration 1'30"

*Avaun* before *in* indef.m.sg *pèr* couple *jamnas* week.f.pl *… èr'* cop.impf.1sg *ju* 1sg *gjù* down *Locarno,* pn *api* and 1399 *sjantar* after *sùnd* be.prs.1sg *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *a* to *spaz* walk.m.sg *… dal* from.def.m.sg *lag* lake *vidajn,* over\_in *api* and 1400 *vòu* have.prs.1sg.1sg *anflau* find.ptcp.unm *in* indef.m.sg *bi* beautiful *ljuc,* place *api* and *lu* then <sup>1401</sup> *… lèv'* want.impf.1sg *ju* 1sg *fá* do.inf *bògn* bath *lò,* there *api* and *va* have.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg *príu* take.ptcp.unm *ò* out 1402 *mju* poss.1sg.m *ùrdan,* utensil *ju* 1sg *vèva* have.impf.1sg *ùrdan* utensil.m.sg *da* attr *scrívar,* write.inf *da* attr *légjar,* read.inf 1403 *a* and *… tùt* all *méz* put.ptcp.unm *òra.* out 1404

'A couple of weeks ago … I was in Locarno and then I went for a walk … at the lake, and then I found a nice place, and then I wanted to take a bath there, and 8 Texts

I took out my utensils, I had writing utensils, something to read, and ... [had] taken out everything.'

lò, 1405 Ju èra prsuls ajn mias 1SG COP.IMPF.1SG alone.M.SG there and eh api èr' 1406 bogn, bogn, ju pinaus dad ir trouser.PL COMP do.INF bath.M.SG and COP.IMPF.1sG 1sG ready.M.SG MOD go.INF

1407 ál' aua. into.DEF.F.SG water

> 'I was alone and ah put on my swim trunks and then I was ready to jump into the water.'

1408 Api grad ajn quèl in cégn ... and exactly in DEM.M.SG moment come.IMPF.3SG INDEF.M.SG swan

né – vi datiar ad èra 1409 gròn lò, usché in téc big.M.SG.UNM or over next\_to and COP.IMPF.3SG there so dòminant. 1410

dominant.ADJ.UNM

'And precisely at that moment a big swan... was coming to the place where I was, a bit a dominant one.'

Api sjantar vòu détg dal 1411 cégn: and after have.PRS.1SG.1SG say.PTCP.UNM DAT.DEF.M.SG swan

'And then I said to the swan:'

taritòri, distùrb' 1412 «Gè, sùnd ju ajn tju ju té?» yes COP.PRS.1sG 1sG in POSS.2sG.M.SG territory disturb.PRS.1sG 1sG 2sG

'Yes, am I in your territory, do I disturb you?'

ál' bigj' í 1413 Nagina réaczjún. Ju sa aua. no.F.SG reaction 1sG can.PRS.1sG NEG go.INF into.DEF.F.SG water

'No reaction. Well, I couldn't jump into the water.'

al 1414 Fòrza prènd' ann avaun maybe take.PRS.3SG 3SG.M something or 1sG have.IMPF.1sG in\_front

1415 zatgé da magljè. something ATTR eat.INF

`Maybe he would take something or I had ... something to eat in front [of me].'


And then I thought I could just get up, right, to show ... like this. No reaction, right?'


`Still there, the swan, there, showing his pow- his power.'


into.DEF.F.SG water

'And then I sat down and thought yes, but, eh, after all I should, I cannot simply jump into the water.'

1423 Api vau tartgau gè OK, lu stajn nus hald and have.PRS.1sG.1sG think.PTCP.UNM yes OK then remain.PRS.1PL 1rL just téc cò. 1424

INDEF.M.SG bit here

'And then I thought yes, OK, in this case we'll just stay here for a while.'

l lò. 1425 Pi sè' vajramájn then be.PRS.3SG 3SG.M true.F.SG.ADV remain.PTCP.M.SG there

'And the swan really stayed there.'


<sup>73</sup>The narrator imitates the behaviour of a dominant male.

<sup>74</sup> Ajfach is Swiss German for Standard Sursilvan semplamein.

'And after a while I thought, eh, I have an idea, I had just bought, I had just bought ... that ... harmonica.'

*Api* and *lu* then *vau* have.prs.1sg.1sg *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *usché.<sup>75</sup>* so 1429

'And then I played like this.'

*A* and *sél* on.def.m.sg *amprém* first *tùn,* sound *al* def.m.sg *cégn* swan *usché:* so *uh,* uh *vscht!* vsht! *ina* one.f.sg *lingja* line 1430

*scapaus* escape.ptcp.m.sg *da* from *lò* there *circa* about *tschian* hundred *mè̱tars* metre.m.pl *navèn,* away *schi* so 1431

*curjòs!* 1432

strange.adj.unm

'And when the swan heard the first sound, he… [went] uh, vsht! [and] escaped from there about one hundred metres away, so strange!'

*Ju* 1sg *sa* know.prs.1sg *bé* neg *dacù̱.* why 1433

'I don't know why.'

*Sas,* know.prs.2sg *fòrza* maybe *... ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *ṣch'* so *léjf* light.adj.unm 1434 *dissònánt* dissonant.adj.unm *né,* right *bétg* neg *idéa.* idea.f.sg 1435

'You know, maybe ... this is slightly dissonant, right, no idea.'

*Álṣò* well *ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *bigja* neg *fatg* make.ptcm.unm *aj* 3sg *agrèssíf,* aggressive.adj.unm *ju* 1sg 1436 *a* have.prs.1sg *vajramájn* really *fatg* make.ptcp.unm *mù* only *…, quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *mù* only 1437 *ina* indef.f.sg *cuérta.* short 1438

'Well, I didn't do it in an aggressive way, I've really done it only …, this is only a short [story].'

<sup>75</sup>The narrator plays two sounds on the harmonica.

### 8.13 Cuérts raquénts

### **8.13 Cuérts raquénts**

**Short stories** (Tuatschín, Zarcúns, m2, aged 82) Recorded 2016/08/24 in Sadrún Duration 7'20"

*La basèlgja da Zarcúns* The church of Zarcuns

Figure 8.5: Zarcuns and its church

*Al* def.m.sg *vitg,* village *gl'* def.m.sg *uclaun* hamlet *da* of *Zarcúns,* pn *quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *la* def.f.sg 1439 *basèlgja* church *da* of *Nòssadùna,* Our\_Lady.f.sg *quaj* dem.unm *fùs* cop.cond.3sg *Nòssadùna* Our\_Lady.f.sg *da* of *la* def.f.sg 1440 *Najf* snow *… ò* have.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *nùm.* name.m.sg 1441

'The village, the hamlet of Zarcuns, that is the church of the Virgin Mary, this is the Virgin of the Snow … as it is called.'

### 8 Texts


And here they say that a long time ago ... there was also in these pictures in the church ... that one ... that lived up in Gjuf, but who had to come down from Gjuf to ... Zarcuns, [who had to] come reciting the Lord's prayer until down to Zarcuns.'


'And there ... after this undertaking", this chapel was built.'

hald détga tgu sa, 1449 Quaj ábar DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG simply INDEF.F.SG legend REL.1SG know.PRS.1SG but

savès 1450 plé gròn more big.ADJ.UNM can.coND.1sG 1sG then also NEG what EXPL COP.PRS.3SG

1451 Vus lajs alsò ... . how 2PL.POL want.2PL.POL well

> 'This is a legend I know, but a longer one I would not be able ... what it is ... how you want, well ... .'

<sup>76</sup>I.e. of coming down to Zarcuns reciting the Lord's prayer.

### La sòcjétat da música The music society

1452 Alsò la véta qu' quèluísa ... qu' èra well DEF.F.SG life DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG this\_way \_ DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3PL 1453 gjuvantétgna èran ... par òrdinari èra

DEF.F.SG youth COP.IMPF.3PL for usual.ADJ.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG èra massa gjuvantétgna cò ála 1454 quaj ... qu' val. DEM.UNM DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG lots 'Well, life here, it was like this ... there was the youth were ... there were usually ... there were a lot of young people here in the valley.'

als als géniturs a a tgi fagèva 1455 Tgi gidava who help.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL parent.PL and who do.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM and ajn quèlas sòcjétats, u 1456 mávani cant go.IMPF.3PL.3PL.3PL into DEM.F.PL society.PL either to.DEF.M.SG singing or 1457 música, a sùn è to.DEF.F.SG music and 1PL be.PRS.1PL also COP.PTCP.M.PL be.PRS.1SG also música biabégn curònt'òns, 1458 ála a COP.PTCP.M.SG at.DEF.F.SG music more than forty year.M.PL and ten 1459 sùnd ju staus prsidén lò, a lura, sjantar year.M.SG be.PRS.1sG 1sG COP.PTCP.M.SG president.M.SG there and then, after axarsézi da música ... èra quaj 1460 gl DEF.M.SG rehearsal of music.F.SG COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM habit.M.SG COMP 1461 – ins – mava – – – … aun a – – – bájbar – – int las GNR go.IMPF.3SG Still SUBORD drink.INF one.M.SG through DEF.F.PL ustrias antùrn. 1 462 restaurant.PL around

'Some helped their parents and some would do that and and they would participate in these societies, either in singing or in music, and we were, and I too was in the music society for a little bit more than forty years, and for ten years I was the president there, and then, after the music rehearsal, there was the habit that one would go and have a drink in the restaurants.'

1463 one.F.SG time here one.F.SG time there and one.F.SG time ju 1464 saragòrd' ajn REFL.remember.PRS.1SG PRS.1SG still COMP 1PL be.IMPF.1PL go.PTCP.M.PL in

ol o Mírar, api sa ju ustria 1465 restaurant.F.SG out.DEF.M.SG PN quaj nuș vèvan 1466 nuș èran vagní, 1PL be.IMPF.1PL come.PTCP.M.PL 1PL have.IMPF.1PL DEM.M.SG year have.IMPF.1PL sé ... ina ... fòrmazjun nòva ad ad 1467 nuș da fă 1PL to make.INF up INDEF.F.SG lineup new.F.SG and and 1468 instrumajnts núfs. instrument.M.PL new.PL

'Once here, once there, and once I still remember ... that we had gone to Mirer's restaurant, and I don't know what we had come up with, that year we had to do ... a ... new lineup and and [buy] new instruments.'

1469 Api vèvan nus, ah, tratg sé lò in téc agl ustér and have.1PL 1PL eh pull.PTCP.UNM up there INDEF.M.SG bit DEF.M.SG manager 1470 a quèls, quèls, prvia do d'in pèr raps, ô

and DEM.M.PL because of INDEF.M.SG pair cent.M.PL and\_then have.PRS.3SG

1471 cun cun quèl' cun idéja da, DEF.M.SG - DEF.M.SG manager come.PTCP.M.SG with DEM.F.SG idea of piartg gròn tg'ins savèva 1472 vagnús cun in 


up for DEM.UNM want.PRS.3SG say.INF for INDEF.F.SG Society here

And we had, eh, made fun of the restaurant manager and the others a little bit, because of some cents, and then the manager came up with the idea of, coming with a big piggy bank into which one could put [coins], one of those strange pigs or so, something was written on it, this means for a ... a society here.'

1475 and then after music.F.SG go.IMPF.3SG GNR in here when EXPL COP.IMPF.SG 1476 jástars stranger.M.PL there CORR - come.IMPF.3PL DEM.M.PL then over and 1477 dèvan kampautraps give.IMPF.3PL put.IMPF.3SG into\_and\_down a\_bit cent.M.PL and when EXPL

 ... fòrsa stau al 1478 èra sasjún COP.IMPF.3SG maybe be.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG last of DEF.F.SG season 1479 Cul ... scha vagnévans d' with.DEF.M.SG CORR come.IMPF.1PL.1PL COMP instead use.INF DEF.M.PL

1480 danès, fom, í èssans

money.PL when 1PL have.IMPF.1PL hunger.F.PL be.IMPF.1PL.1PL go.PTCP.M.PL

1481 anzjaman culas dùnas, together with.DEF.F.PL woman.PL to to a dinner.F.SG of DEM.F.PL thing.PL

And then after rehearsal we would go there; if there were strangers there, they would come over and give ... put into the piggy bank some cents and when it was ... maybe the last of the season with the ... then we would, instead of use the money [for the society], when we were hungry, we would go and have dinner with our wives, things like that.'

1482 tgé èri gju and when 3sG have.PRS.3sG have.PTCP.UNM what be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL èssan nus í in 1483 Stau. ôn ... sén in COP.PTCP.UNM be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL INDEF.M.SG year on INDEF.M.SG 1484 vièdi gjù ad, ad Immis.

trip down to to PN

And ... when he had found out what had been going on, we went one year ... on a trip down to, to Immis.'

[PhM] Nua ei quei? 1485 where cop.prs.3sg dem.unm

'Where is this?'

[m2] Immis, quaj gjù, gjù tschò damanajval da ... 1486 PN DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG down down there near of Interlaken. 1487

PN

'Immis, that is down, down there, near ... Interlaken.'

1488 La sòcjètát èn i ... èssan nus i, DEF.F.SG SOCiety be.PRS.3PL go.PTCP.M.PL be.IMPF.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL

sòcjètát, lu 1489 nus halt valjusavaj


### 8 Texts

sé ad Immis vágian ajn ina, ina fjasta 1491 Say.PTCP.UNM up at 2 PN PN 2 have.PRS.SBJV.3PL in INDEF.F.SG INDEF.F.SG 1492 d'ad'anus scù scù schù schèvan, ina fjasta d'uaut. party of woods as 1PL - Say.IMPF.1PL INDEF.F.SG party of woods

"The society went ... we went, the society, then in the evening we wanted to know whether there was something special going on, and then they said that at Immis, they had a party in the woods as we used to say, a party in the woods.'

1493 Api èssan nuș i sé ... tauns èssan sé and be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL up so\_many.M.PL be.PRS.3PL go.PTCP.M.PL up 1494 sédajn cò.

up\_and\_in here

And we went up ... so many went up here.'

1495 Quaj èra quèls gjucs a quaj quaj api ... vajn DEM.UNM EXIST.IMPF.3SG DEM.M.PL game.PL and DEM.UNM and | have.PRS.1PL 1496 nus ... sofòrt77 anflau òra tga

immediately find.PTCP.UNM out COMP SUBORD fish.INF with.DEF.F.SG 1PL


'There were those games and that, and ... we found out ... immediately that ... when fishing with the lance, those bottles, those that had a ring at their bottom.'

1499 Quèl butèglja vin. DEM.M.SG REL SUCCeed.IMPF.3SG get.IMPF.3SG INDEF.F.SG bottle wine.M.SG

'The person who succeeded would get a bottle of wine.'


'OK, we were, we always made sure that there were six of us together, and one would certainly succeed.'

<sup>77</sup> Sòfòrt is a German word; its Tuatschin synonym is imédjat.

1502 Apitanstagl bájbar al vin ... èran sé, and instead drink.INF DEF.M.SG wine be.IMPF.1PL 1SG then go.PTCP.M.PL up vèvani ina bòla. fatg 1503

have.IMPF.3PL.3PL do.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG punch

And instead of drinking the wine ... we went up, they had prepared a punch." davùṣ vèvan nuṣ ṣvidau 1504 Apittòc' al quèla bòla.

and until DEF.M.SG last have.1PL 1PL empty.PTCP.UNM DEM.F.SG punch

'And we drank the whole punch, down to the last drop.'

1505 Quèls DEM.M.PL musician.PL of PN

'These musicians from Sedrun.'

anavùs la butèglja vin api buèvanṣ 1506 Nuș dèvan

1PL give.IMPF.1PL back DEF.F.SG bottle wine and drink.IMPF.1PL.1PL 1507 duas

two.F.PL three of DEM.F.PL and of DEM.F.PL thing.PL

'We would give back the bottle of wine and then we would drink ... two or three of these, and things like that.'

1508 Uschéja. Da la sòcjétat da la ida of DEF.F.SG society of DEF.F.SG music REL be.IMPF.3SG go.PTCP.F.SG so sén vièdi. 1509

on trip.M.SG

Exactly so. About the music society that had gone on a trip.'

La cumpagnia da mats The young men's association

cumpagnia da mats, lèzas vèvan mintg' jèda, la 1510 La DEF.F.SG association of boy.PL DEM.F.PL have.IMPF.3PL every.F.SG time DEF.F.SG

1511 cumpagnia da mats vèva mintg' jèda, lu association of boy.PL have.IMPF.3PL every.F.SG time then cor.IMPF.3SG

sjat fjastas 1512 quaj quaj craju, ... tga vagnéva DEM.UNM believe.PRS.1SG.1SG seven celebration.F.PL REL PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG

1513 ... fatg parada. do.PTCP.UNM parade.F.SG "The young men's associations, every time they had, every time the young men's association had, then there were ..., I believe, seven celebrations ... when they would ... prepare a parade.'

scù Sòntgalcrést, Fronleichnam scù nuș Quaj èra 1514 DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG as Corpus\_Christi.M.SG Fronleichnam'8 as 1PL api 1515 schajn, aj say.PRS.1PL and\_then EXIST.IMPF.3SG EXPL | Sunday.F.SG white and\_then aj, ah, Nòssadùna ... d' Úast 1516 èr , álșò cùlas EXIST.IMPF.3SG EXPL eh Our\_Lady.F.SG of August.M.SG well with.DEF.F.PL 1517 fjastas aschia, a tùt anzjaman, api and all together and\_then EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL celebration.PL so Vagèli, a 1518 al patrún-basèlgja Sógn DEF.M.SG patron.SG-church.F.SG Saint.M.SG Vigilius and here > play.IMPF.3SG 1519 ... sòcjétat da música, fagèvan ina aj DEF.F.SG society of music.F.SG make.IMPF.3PL 3PL.UNM INDEF.F.SG

 1520 pròcèsjún-basèlgja, procession-church.F.SG only DEF.M.PL Catholic.PL and DEF.F.SG music a la cumpagnia da mats. 1521 go.IMPF.3sG and DEF.F.SG association of boy.M.PL

"These were for instance Corpus Christi, «Fronleichnam» as we say, and also Divine Mercy Sunday, and there was eh Our Lady... of August, well, with the celebrations and all together, and then there was the Church Patron Saint Vigilius and here ... the Music Society used to play, they made a procession, only the Catholics, and the Music Society would participate, and the Young men's association [as well].'

1522 A lu èra quaj, cumpignia da mats and then EXIST.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM in.DEF.F.SG association of young man.M.PL 1523 quaj ... tga EXIST.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM in thirty till - forty young\_man.M.PL REL parada cula 1524 fagèvan guís cò. make.IMPF.3PL parade.F.SG with.DEF.F.PL with.DEF.F.SG rifle here

'And then there were, there were between thirty and forty ... young men ... who would parade with the, with their rifles here.'

<sup>78</sup> Fronleichnam is the German word for Sòntgalcrést

1525 Gèggè quèls, ... duș yes yes DEM.M.PL two.M.PL by two.M.PL go.IMPF.3PL.3PL and in\_between 1526 quèls scù nuș șchajn.

EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL DEM.M.PL church\_banner.PL as 1PL say.PRS.1PL

'Oh yes, these ... they would go two by two, and in between there were the cafanúns [church banners] as we say.'

1527 Api èri, davauntiar èra è la, la and EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL in front EXIST.IMPF.3SG also DEF.F.SG DEF.F.SG

1528 schèvan flag 1529 bandiara bjala.

flag beautiful.F.sG

'And there was, in front there was also the the beautiful flag ..., this was, as they would say ..., the beautiful flag.'


'And this ... there were ... on both sides ... there were two who had been or were recruits who would accompany [the flag] with a rifle with the bayonet fixed on it.'


'And those who were members of the association of young men were ... the young men who were bachelors.'


8 Texts

'Before a celebration they would go ... to the ... girls for carnations, because they would put ... a carnation on their hat.'

 mav' 1538 atgnamajn and DEM.UNM as\_a\_matter\_of\_fact go.IMPF.3SG GNR NEG\_more for.DEF.M.SG ins pal 1539 nègla, puschégn, quaj carnation and DEM.UNM go.IMPF.3SG GNR for.DEF.M.SG snack 1540 vagnéva dau in puschégn a PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG snack - and afterwards 1541 ins ina nègla. receive.PTCP.UNM GNR DEF.F.SG carnation

'But as a matter of fact, one wouldn't go for the carnation any more, one would go for a snack and afterwards one would receive a carnation.'

 è 1542 Ad i aun schabagjau plé and EXPL be.PRS.3SG in\_addition happen.PTCP.UNM more COMP 1PL be.PRS.1PL ... tiar duas, 1543 go.PTCP.M.PL to two.F.PL well in two.F.PL time.PL to ONE.F and ad í vi tiar tschèla. 1544 sjantar afterwars in\_addition go.PTCP.M.PL and go.PTCP.M.PL over to DEM.F.SG

'And it also happened more ... that we went ... to two [girls], well at two different moments ... to the one and went also, and went over to the other.'

1545 Api savèv' ins bigja cù, cù cù fá fá and know.IMPF.3SG GNR NEG how how do.INF SUBORD carry.INF DEF.F.PL

1546 las carnation.PL since subord dem.unm dem.unm do.impF.3sg def.F.Pl


And one would not know how to put the carnations on the hat, since that, the young women would pay close attention to whether they had put on the hat the carnation they had given them or not.'

1549 A Aqu' qu' a con è lu schabagjau tr and DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG then happen.PTCP.UNM by many.F.PL let.IMPF.3PL 1550 lu sarau, quaj then also NEG come.INF in COP.IMPF.3SG close.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM

1551 mav' mins sén ésch ésch go.IMPF.3SG GNR on door.M.SG and chatter.IMPF.3SG and do.IMPF.3SG and 1552 tùtajnina șchèvani gè, lu mav' mav' ins ajn.

sudenly say.IMPF.3PL.3PL yes then go.IMPF.3SG GNR in

'And this happened ... many [young women] wouldn't let [the young man] come in, the door was closed, so one would go to the door and chatter and do ... and then suddenly the young women would say yes, and then one would go in.'

1553 A A da quèlas tgaussas. and of DEM.F.PL thing.PL

'And things like that.'

1554 A ... ad in òn, sa ju aun bégn, lu vèvan nus and INDEF.M.SG year know.PRS.1SG 1SG still well then have.IMPF.1PL 1PL tòc 1555 fatg in have.PTCP.UNM do.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG prank funny 1556 anòra.

out

And ... and one year, I still know very well, we from the music had played a funny prank.'

1557 è stau finju scha fò in EXPL be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM finish.PTCP.UNM then do.PRS.3SG one.M.SG and 1558 ... tg'èran lò djantarajn ...: «Óz fùs ... dad of.DEF.M.PL COP.IMPF.3SG there in\_between & today be.coND.3SG to 1559 fá vitg, quèls da go.INF SUBORD do.INF carnival.M.SG here in.DEF.M.SG village DEM.M.PL of sé Tgès' 1560 quèls ồn DEM.M.PL have.PRS.3PL up house.F.SG white with carnival.M.SG today and 1561 nus détg: «Ah, scha quaj have.PRS.1PL 1PL say.PTCP.UNM eh then DEM.UNM can.COND.1PL 1PL indeed sé mirá.» ira 1562

go.INF up look.INF

And ... it was over, then one of those ... who were there among us, said ... «Today we should do carnival here in the village, those of the Tgès' Alva have carnival today», and then we said: «Eh, then, in this case, we could indeed go up and have a look.»'

8 Texts

1563 Api èssan nus i ... api davùsajn a pudjú ajn and be.PRS.1PL 1PL go.PTCP.M.PL and back in and be able.PTCP.UNM in 1564 davùstiar ajn ajn ajn, nùca tga vèvan al al al, nuș back\_by in in in in where REL have.IMPF.3PL DEF.M.SG DEF.M.SG DEF.M.SG 1PL 1565 schèvan la tgaminada, quaj ... in lòcál say.IMPF.1PL DEF.F.SG pantry DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG - INDEF.M.SG place 1566 nùca tga matévan lò, vèvan ajn las magljas a where REL put.IMPF.3PL there have.IMPF.3PL in DEF.F.PL provisions.PL and 1567 quaj a frèstg quaj. DEM.UNM REL hold.IMPF.3PL at fresh.ADJ.UNM DEM.UNM

`And then we went ... and then into the house from the back, and were able to go in from the back, into into, where they had the the the, we would say 'tgaminada' [pantry], this was ... a place where [they] would put into, would keep provisions and what had to be kept fresh.'


empty and put.PTCP.UNM there again and go.PTCP.UNM

And the others were in the living room and were playing card games ... and we took these ... prepared, these snacks, these ... trays with meat and all on it ... we took this and went down into the hay barn and ate it and after we went up back with ... with the empty dishes, put them there again and went away.'

1575 A A da quèlas tgaussas ... schabjavi. and of DEM.F.PL thing.PL happen.IMPF.3SG.EXPL

And these sort of things ... used to happen.'

 Öz sè bigja quaj plé. 1576 today EXIST.PRS.3SG.EXPL NEG DEM.UNM more

'Nowadays, this doesn't exist any more.'

1577 Oz vòni è aun ... duas today go.PRS.3PL.3PL also NEG EXPL EXPL EXPL EXPL EXIST.PRS.3SG Still of the or 1578 trajs ah ... fjastas parada. three eh celebration.PL REL DEF.F.SG youth do.PRS.3PL parade.F.sg

'Nowadays they don't go either, there there are still ... two or three eh ... celebrations where the association of young men ... holds a parade.'

1579 Abar òz pauc lò; déjsch dùdisch but today ExIST.PRS.3SG little there REL EXPL EXIST.PRS.3SG ten - twelve 1580 ásaj tút. COP.PRS.3SG.EXPL all

'But today there aren't many [members of the association] there; if there are ten or twelve, that's all.'

1581 Ad Òz fö er er er er las ... par tga and today do.PRS.3SG also DEF.F.PL young\_woman.PL for SUBORD 1582 avùnda. EXIST.PRS.SBJV.3SG enough

And today the young women also take part ... so that ... there are enough people."

quaj, 1583 Abar lu ins fá but then cop.IMPF.3sg DEM.UNM DEM.UNM must.IMPF.3sG GNR do.INF 1584 èxáman ... par ...savaj marschá ... ira ... ál INDEF.M.SG exam can.INF march.INF go.INF sòcjétat dals ... cul cula 1585 álso at.DEF.M.SG step with.DEF.M.SG with.DEF.F.SG Society of.DEF.M.PL 1586 pr ah ...savaj cù i sèj da sapurtá. well SUBORD eh

1587

REFL.behave.INF

'But then this was, one had to pass an exam ... in order to ... be allowed to march ... march ... in step with the, with the association of the ... well in order eh ... to know how one should behave.'

### 8 Texts

*Intarassant* interesting.adj.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *schòn,* indeed *ábar* but *òz* today *ṣè* be.prs.3sg 1588

*quaj tùt ṣvanju … prquaj ̩ tga par ina* 1589

dem.unm all disappear.ptcp.unm because subord for one.f.sg

*ásaj* exist.prs.3sg.expl *schòn* already *bétga* neg *… gjuvantétgna* youth.f.sg *plé* more *cò,* here *òz.* today 1590

'This was interesting indeed, but today this has all disappeared … because on the one hand there are no … young people here any more.'

*Cu* when *i* 3pl *végnan* come.prs.3pl *òd* out\_of *scùla* school.f.sg *scha* corr *vòni* go.prs.3pl.3pl *navèn* away 1591

*amprèndar mistrégn, api survégnan aj ina plaza* 1592

learn.inf profession.m.sg and receive.prs.3pl 3pl indef.f.sg employment *èra òrdlùndar.* 1593

also out\_of\_it

> 'Today when they finish school, they go away in order to learn a profession, and then they also get an employment thanks to it.'

*Cò* here *èn* exist.prs.3pl *aj* expl *bigja* neg *plazas* job.f.pl *suficjèntas.* enough.pl 1594

'Here there aren't enough jobs.'

*Ju* 1sg *sa* know.prs.1sg *cu* when *cu* when *… cu* when *ju* 1g *sùn* be.prs.1sg *maridaus* marry.ptcp.m.sg *tga* comp <sup>1595</sup> *…*

*èri* exist.impf.3sg.expl *ajn* in *Camischùlas* pn *circa* about *quindiṣch* fifteen *ufauns* child.m.pl *… tga* rel 1596 *mavan a scùla da Camischùlas.* 1597

go.impf.3pl to school.f.sg of pn

'I know that when when … when I got married … there were in Camischolas about fifteen … children who attended the school of Camischolas.'

*Ad* and *òz* today *ásaj* exist.prs.3sg.expl *bitga* neg *trajs,* three *gè,* yes *tga* rel *vòn* go.prs.3sg *a* to *scùla.* school.f.sg 1598

'And today there aren't [even] three that attend school.'


1601 gljut people.F.SG more old

'The others have grown up and left, and also, and virtually ... actually there are almost only old people in Camischolas.'

sgarschajval 1602 Gljud gjufna saj people.F.SG young EXIST.PRS.3SG.EXPL terrible.ADJ.UNM little.M.PL

'There are very few young people.'

1603 Quaj vò tùt anavùs. DEM.UNM go.PRS.3sG all.UNM back

'Everything is disappearing.'

1604 [PhM] E co eis i per Vus and how be.PRS.3SG EXPL COP.PTCP.UNM for 2SG.POL COMP learn.INF tudestg? 1605

German.M.sG

[PhM] 'And how was it for you to learn German?'


strange.ADJ.UNM

[m2] 'Oh, to learn German was, at the beginning this was indeed a little bit strange.'

1609 Cu ins èra. parquaj tga nus bétg aun when GNR COP.IMPF.3SG because SUBORD then have.IMPF.1PL 1PL NEG yet al 1610 al, schi scù quaj tg' èl


*stuèv'* must.impf.3sg *inṣ* gnr *amprèndar* learn.inf *al* def.m.sg *plajd,* word *navèn* from *da* of *la* def.f.sg *tschunavla* five.ord 1613 *ansé.* 1614

in\_up

'When one was, because then … we didn't have the tourism that was up here the way that it is now … and one had simply, here, we had … to learn word for word, first we had to learn the word, from the fifth [class] onwards.'

*Api* and *vagnéva* come.impf.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *mintg'* every *òn* year.m.sg *in* indef.m.sg *téc* bit *daplé,* more *a* and *lu* then 1615 *dèvani* give.3pl.3pl *lu* then *è* also *sé* up *da,* comp *da* comp *scrívar* write.inf *tòcs,* play.m.pl *tg'* rel *ins* gnr 1616 *stuèva* must.impf.3sg *scrívar* write.inf *… navèn* from *dal* of.def.m.sg *ròmòntsch ̱* Romansh *… vi* over *sél* on.def.m.sg 1617

*tudèstg* German *… tga* rel *vignéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *curagju.* correct.ptcp.unm 1618

'And then every year some words were added, and then they also gave [us homework] to write plays which one had to translate … from Romansh to German … [and which] were corrected.'


'And then retell … the German [text] … in Romansh, or the Romansh in German, and, as a matter of fact, that's the way we learned … the foundation of the language.'

### **8.14 Dus vièdis**

**Two trips** (Tuatschín, Ruèras, f7, aged 44) Recorded 2016/08/26 in Ruèras Duration 1'40"

*In vièdi gjù Sògn Gagl* A trip to St. Gallen

*Ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *stada* cop.ptcp.f.sg *avaun* ago *duṣ* two.m.pl *òns* year.pl *circa* about *… ṣè* cop.prs.3sg 1622 *quaj* dem.unm *- végni* come.prs.3sg.expl *quaj,* dem.unm *gl* def.m.sg *atún* autumn *tgu* rel.1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg 1623 *stad'* cop.ptcp.f.pl *ad* at *in* indef.m.sg *… sanunzjèda* refl.register.ptcp.f.sg *pr̩* for *in* indef.m.sg *cuérs* course *da* of 1624 *… stamping-staff,* stamping-staff *da* comp *… da* comp *fá* make.inf *música* music.f.sg *cul* with.def.m.sg <sup>1625</sup> *… cul* with.def.m.sg *tgiarp.* body 1626

'About two years ago I was .. this is - it comes, in autumn when I was at a ... [when I] registered for a ... stamping-staff course, to make music with the ... with the body.'

*Rítmica* rhythmics.f.sg *a* and *música* music.f.sg *cul* with.def.m.sg *tgiarp* body *gjù* down *…* down *gjù* pn *Sògn Gagl,* three 1627 *trajs* <sup>1628</sup> *dis.*

day.m.pl

'Rhythmics and music with the body down down in St. Gallen, for three days.'


'And ... my sense of orientation is not the best that ... that exists.'


'Enough. I went to the train, to St. Gallen there is not much you could do wrong, and I left the train and thought:'

*Núa* where *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.m.sg *hòtè̱l?* hotel *Bigj'* neg *idéa,* idea *ju* 1sg *èra* be.impf.1sg *schòn* already *ònṣ* year.m.pl 1634 *bigja stad' ajn quaj martgau.* 1635

neg cop.ptcp.f.sg in dem.m.sg hotel

'Where is this hotel? No idea, I hadn't been in that city for years.'


'And now there are smart apps, right? [I] took out my iPhone, started here my maps and began to go, to go, yes yes, and yes, looked around a little bit, and all of a sudden it made baf!'


on dem.m.sg iPhone 1642

> 'Ran into a signboard with my head, because I had this woman speaking on the iPhone.'

<sup>78</sup>*quèla dùna* replaces an unintelligible part.


go.impf.1sg to walk.m.sg here

'This was funny. In any case I hit my head because I was going for a walk here.'

*Ju* 1sg *ancuréva* look\_for.impf.3sg *bigj'* neg *aun* yet *pokémons.* pokémon.m.pl 1646

'I wasn't looking for the pokémons yet.'

*Ju* 1sg *a* have.prs.1sg *tutin'* in\_spite *anflau* find.ptcp.unm *mju* poss.1sg.m.sg *… craj* believe.prs.1sg *ju* 1sg <sup>1647</sup> *… cò* here *'l* def.m.sg *hòtè̱l* hotel *vèva* have.impf.3sg *nùm* name.m.sg *… Schweizerkreuz* pn *…, ju* 1sg 1648 *a* have.prs.1sg *anflau* find.ptcp.unm *tiptòp.* perfectly 1649

'In spite of this I found my ... I think ... here, the name of the hotel was Schweizerkreuz ..., I found [the hotel] very easily.'

*Gè,* yes *quaj* dem.unm *è* be.prs.3sg *ùṣ* now *vagnú* come.ptcp.unm *andamajn* in\_mind *da* dat *mé* 1sg *tg'* comp 1650 *era* be.impf.3sg *stau,* cop.ptcp.unm *gè,* yes *tg'* comp *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *vajramajn* real.f.sg.adv 1651

*léjgar.* 1652

funny.adj.unm

'Yes, this has come to my mind now, that it was, yes, that it had been, that it was really funny.'

*In vièdi gjù Sardégna* A trip to Saradinia

*Staj* cop.ptcp.m.pl *gjù* down *… gjù* down *Sardégna.* pn *Cù* how *détsch* say.prs.1sg *ju?* 1sg *Gjù* down *Sardégna?<sup>79</sup>* pn 1653 '[We] were down in Sardinia. How do I say? Down Sardinia?'

<sup>79</sup>The narrator refers to the fact that we were speaking about locative prepositions and that the right preposition often occurs spontaneously.

1654 gè, quaj lu c'i è eh exactly yes DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG then other.ADJ.UNM REL EXPL COP.PRS.3SG spòntán, névétg. 1655

spontaneous.M.UNM right?

'Eh, exactly, yes, this is another one that is spontaneous, right?'

l' 1656 amprém' jèď uòn, 1PL be.PRS.1PL fly.PTCP.M.PL DEF.F.SG first . . . time this\_year with POSS.1PL.F.PL duas ... buébas. 1657

two.F girl.PL

'We flew for the first time this year, with our two ... daughters'.

nus ... tgé c' 1658 A A lo lò essessan stau al and there be.PRS.1PL 1PL what REL be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG plé è dé tga 1659 al spézjál stau in DEF.M.SG more special.ADJ.UNM be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG day REL a la 1660 nuș èssan staj bògn apı 1PL be.PRS.1PL COP.PTCP.M.PL at DEF.F.SG sea and make.PTCP.UNM bath.M.SG and antschiat a 1661 have.PRS.3SG begin.PTCP.UNM COMP rain.INF

'And then we ... what was the ... the most special [thing] is one day when we were at the seaside and went swimming and it started raining.'

lässig.80 1662 Gè quaj è e stau, stau yes DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM COOl

'Yes this was, this was cool.'


go.INF over\_out ELAT-far

'Well, it was ... it was very warm and the sea was beautiful in Sardinia. Sand, you could go very far.'

<sup>80</sup> lässig is Swiss German.


'And then we were at the seaside with sun and it rained.'

# **8.15 Èssar gjuvans ér ad òz**

**Being young yesterday and today** (Tuatschín, Sadrún, m9, aged 31) Recorded 2017/03/14 in Sedrun Duration 6'10"


<sup>81</sup>*èṣ èla* is a performance error for *ṣè la*

'Well yes ... I am now already more or less thirty ... thirty one years old ... and I can, yes, a bit of my youth I can indeed tell [you about] ... the way it was when we were young and the way it is nowadays ... a bit the differences.'

1677 Tgé c' c' i è usché è sémplamajn, nus fagèvan what REL EXPL COP.PRS.3SG SO COP.PRS.3SG simple.F.SG.ADV 1PL do.IMPF.1Pl 1678 plétòst ... gè, scù lajn dí rather yes how want.PRS.1PL say.INF 1PL COP.IMPF.3PL simple.F.SG.ADV 1679 camarats a nus mavan vias. mate.M.PL and 1PL go.IMPF.1PL out through.DEF.F.PL street.PL

'What is so is simply rather ... yes, how should I say ... we were simply mates and we would go around in the streets.


'We would go around in the streets ... there we played our games ... if we did something, we would always do it during our leisure time.'

1683 Sch, i èra bigja d'amprèndar, sch'èr' ins EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG NEG to learn.INF CORR COP.IMPF.3SG GNR if 1684 vias antùrn. trough.DEF.F.SG street.PL around

'If we didn't have to study, we would go around in the streets.'

stèv' 1685 Alsò vagnú a tgèsa ins bégja bjè. Lu well come.PTCP.UNM to house.F.SG stay.IMPF.3SG GNR NEG much then 1686 Stèv' ins schòn vaj schliat. must.IMPF.3SG GNR really have.INF bad.UNM

"Well, [when we] arrived home, we wouldn't stay long. In this case [i.e. if we stayed at home] we wouldn't feel well indeed.'

tg'i 1687 A lu lu è èssar tgé and can.IMPF.3SG then also cop.INF what weather.F.SG REL EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG

'And it also depended on what kind of weather there was.'

<sup>82</sup> Nés is a performance error for nos.

1688 Más tg i ins lungurús, a sosch' since SUBORD DEF.M.SG most at home.F.SG have.IMPF.3SG GNR boring - and if

lungurús, mav' 1689 ins vèva

GNR have.IMPF.3SG boring go.IMPF.3SG GNR outside and do.IMPF.3SG 1690 zatgéj.

something

`Since in most cases it was boring at home, and if one was bored, one would go outside and do something.'

bjè, ggè, a 1691 Nus mavan 1PL go.IMPF.1PL often yes SUBORD do.INF game.M.PL as COMP GNR do.iMPF.3SG

1692 plé more early maybe of DEM.UNM of police.F.SG and thief.M.SG of DEM.UNM

'We would often go and play, as one would do it in the past ... maybe games of police and thief ... things like that.'

 mètar avaun òzaldé 1693 Ad ju sa and 1sG can.PRS.1sG put before nowadays can.PRS.1sG 1sG NEG put.INF 1694 avaun plé tg' before more comp 3PL do.PRS.3PL of DEM.UNM right

'And I can imagine nowadays ... I cannot imagine any more that they play that, right?'

1695 hald è 1PL go.IMPF.1PL for example.M.SG also DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG just also

1696 ... ùs saj vagnú in téc plé clear.ADJ.UNM now be.PRS.3SG.EXPL become.PTCP.UNM INDEF.M.SG bit more 1697 spès, tùt cun tgèsas dense.ADJ.UNM all with house.F.PL

'We would also go, for instance ... this is also clear ... now it has become a bit more dense, all with houses ... . '


8 Texts

'We had in fact ... still a few more open [spaces] ... garden, I say, now ... right and left, so that we still could play a bit of football ... right and left.'

*A* and *né* right *grad* precisely *è* also *gl* def.m.sg *unviarn* winter *cunzún* especially *mavanṣ* go.impf.1pl.1pl *bjè* often *a* and 1701 *bagagjavan* build.impf.1pl *sprungṣ* jump.m.pl *a* and *dèvan* give.impf.1pl *cun* with *skis* ski.m.pl *né* or *cun* with *ajssa* board.f.sg 1702


*ùṣa* now *fòrsa* maybe *dal* from.def.m.sg *tráfic* traffic *a* and *vidanò.* back\_and\_forth 1705

'And, right?, especially during winter we often went and built ski jumps and would go skiing or snowboarding, or we would go down the streets on bobsleigh ... which was of course not really as unsafe ... as now because of the traffic and so on.'


*fatg* do.ptcp.unm *òzaldé̱,* nowadays *quét'* think.prs.1sg *ju.* 1sg 1708

'And there were simply differences I think ... we played more often outside than what is done nowadays, I think.'

*Fòrsa* maybe *è* also *… clar,* sure.adj.unm *nus* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *schòn* in\_fact *è* also *nòs* poss.1pl.m.pl 1709

*còmpjutars* computer.pl *né* or *tgé* what *ca* rel *nus* 1pl *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *als* def.m.pl *gameboys* gameboy.pl *a* and 1710

*vidanò.* back\_and\_forth

'Maybe also ... sure, we also had our computers or what did we have? ... the gameboys and so on ... .'

*Ábar* but *... quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *schòn* in\_fact *bigja* neg *schi* so *scù* as *òzaldé* nowadays *… quaj* dem.unm 1712

*èxtrè̱m.* 1713

1711

extreme.adj.unm

'But this was in fact not like nowadays ... so extreme.'

1714 tjams salagravan nus and DEF.F.SG going\_out of POSS.1PL.M.SG time REFL.appreciate.IMPF.1PL 1PL 1115 da

COMP come.INF out of school.F.SG SUBORD also C can.INF to DEF.F.SG

'And as for going out ... when we were young we were happy to come out of school in order to also be able to go to the association of young people.'

1716 Nus vajn gè gè sé cò 1PL have.PRS.1PL after\_all so much 1PL have.PRS.1PL aftere\_all up here 1717 unjun da gjuvantégna.

INDEF.M.SG union of youth.F.SG

'We have after all so many ... well, we have up here a Young People's Association, after all.'


'And I believe that in earlier times they really had ... we were really happier to

go there ... be together with maybe people who were a bit older and so on ... ? 172 A quaj

and DEM.UNM nowadays DEF.M.PL young.PL REL come.PRS.3PL out of school.F.SG bigja gjù schi fétg cun in 1723 téc plé végls. REFL.give.PRS.3PL NEG down so often with iNDEF.M.SG bit more old.M.PL

'And nowadays the young people who come out of school do not want to have to do so much with those who are a bit older.'

adina gju 1724 Nus vajn fatg parada. 1PL have.PRS.1PL always have.PTCP.UNM make.PTCP.UNM parade.F.SG 'We always held a parade.'

125 Jul sùn 1sG be.prs.1sG simply cop.pTcP.M.sG ooh almost to ten ten year.M.PL captain

a jul schòn din 1726 a lu sa and then know.PRS.1sG 1sG indeed INDEF.M.SG bit how EXPL function.IMPF.3SG 'As a matter of fact, I was ... oh, for almost ten years captain [of the Association of Youth] and therefore I know a bit how it used to function.'

*Nus* 1pl *santupavan,* refl.meet.impf.1pl *al* def.m.sg *bjè* often *vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nuṣ* 1pl *da* to *fá* make.inf *gjù* down 1727 *usché* so *mias'* half.f.sg *ur'* hour *avaun* before *sél* on.def.m.sg *lòcál,* place *nuṣ* 1pl *vajn* have.prs.1pl *in* indef.m.sg *lòcál* place 1728 *da* of *gjuvantétgna* youth.f.sg *… nùca* where *tga* rel *nus* 1pl *sarimnavan* refl.meet.impf.1pl *tùts.* all.m.pl 1729

'We would meet, in most cases we had to meet half an hour or so before, at the place ... we have a place where the Young People's Association can meet ... where all of us would meet.'

*A* and *las* def.f.pl *buébas* girl.pl *né* or *las* def.f.pl *gjufnas* young\_woman.pl *mégljardétg,* better\_said *lèzas* dem.f.pl 1730


*las* def.f.pl *bandiaras,* flag.pl *la* def.f.sg *fana* flag *bial'* beautiful *a* and *quaj,* dem.unm *a* and *lu* then 1735

*vèvan* have.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *mintg'* every.f.sg *jè* time *in* indef.m.sg *capitani* captain *ad* and *in* indef.m.sg *fice.* vice 1736

'And the girls or, to be more precise, the young women had to ... wear a white blouse or wear, yes, white ... and black trousers like the young men too ... but the young women had to participate with a bunch of flowers, but some of us had to come with a rifle or with flags, the "beautiful flag" and so, and each time we had a captain and a vice-captain.'

*L'* def.f.sg *antschata* beginning *c'* when *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *vagnús* come.ptcp.m.sg *ò* out *da* of *scùla* school.f.sg <sup>1737</sup> *… usché* so *avaun* before *quindiṣch* fifteen *òns* year.m.pl *… lò* there *... anflávani* find.impf.3pl.3pl *aun* still *plétòsṯ* rather *da* of 1738

1739 quèls bigja schi DEM.M.PL REL do.IMPF.3PL but now find.INF captain.M.PL COP.PRS.3SG NEG SO sémpal. 1740

simple.ADJ.UNM

'At the beginning when I had finished school ... about fifteen years ago ... there ... they would still find people who would do [the job of captain], but nowadays to find captains is not so easy.'

1741 [PhM] E daco manegias? and why think.PRS.2SG

'And why do you think so?'

[m9] Ah ju sa bégja ... dacu sa ju bégja ... sch'i 1742 eh 1sg know.PRS.1sG NEG | why know.PRS.1sG 1sG NEG | if | 3PL turpètg forsa ... sogar, schizún83 ... téc ... al 1743 in have.PRS.3PL INDEF.M.SG bit - DEF.M.SG shame maybe - even even 1744 abar, i ... i gréjv dí ... i but EXPL COP.PRS.3SG EXPL COP.PRS.3SG difficult.ADJ.UNM Say.INF EXPL usché cèrd òn ... cèrdș ons 1745 EXIST.PRS.3SG SO Certain.M.SG year certain.M.PL year.PL or age\_group.F.PL uschéa, lu duas, trajs anadas 1746 tga sèn REL COP.PRS.3PL SO

téc autar. puspè in 1747 tga sèn REL COP.PRS.3PL again INDEF.M.SG bit other.ADJ.UNM

'Eh, I don't know ... why I don't know ... whether they are a bit ... ashamed, maybe, even, ... but it is ... it is difficult to say ... there is a certain year ... there are certain age groups which are like that, and then there are two or three age groups that are again a bit different.'

1748 Ad ju a al santimajn, las anadas tga and 1sG have.PRS.1sG DEF.M.SG feeling DEF.F.PL age\_group.PL REL ùsa, astg' ins di cun buna cuns-cianza, 1749 come.PRS.3PL now allow.PRS.3SG GNR say.INF with good.F.SG conscience 1750 puspè plé tgunsch gjuvantétgna, i come.PRS.3PL again more easy.ADJ.UNM to.DEF.F.SG youth 3PL sadrézan plétòst anviars nus. 1751 REFL.address.PRS.3PL rather towards 1PL

<sup>83</sup> Sogar is German, and Schizún is Romansh.

8 Texts

'And I have the feeling, the age groups that are coming now, one can say it with a clear conscience, they come more easily to the Young People's Association, they ... rather address us.'

téc usché ... al Us sai puspè in 1752 now cop.PRS.3SG.EXPL again INDEF.M.SG bit so 1753 | quindiṣch òns, stau ditg fifteen year.PL think.PRS.1SG 1SG EXPL be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM long\_time djantarajn, è stau anadas, ge tg' ins 1754 there in\_between be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM age\_group.F.PL yes REL GNR 1755 bétga pròpi know.IMPF.3SG NEG exactly where put.INF DEM.M.PL yes exact.ADJ.UNM

'Now it is again a bit like this ... the core as ... fifteen years ago, I think ... it has been a long time in between, there have been age groups, yes, of which one didn't know exactly ... where to put them, yes, exactly.'


go.IMPF.3PL INDEF.F.SG time

'But the difference, where I also see a big difference, as a ski teacher I have already been teaching for eight years ... I see a lot of what is going on on the ski slopes, especially ... regarding the local people ... they don't go as often as they used to go some time ago.'


'Especially the youth ... little youth ... what one often sees are older people, one can see a lot of retired people on the slopes ... and the others are those one always sees ... these families, as always.'

1765 Ábar lò schòn ju anavùṣ in téc, è sai but there be.PRS.3SG.EXPL really go.PTCP.UNM back | INDEF.M.SG bit also 1766 Cùls indigèns. Uṣ ani plétòst antschiat ajn ad with.DEF.M.PL local.PL how have.PRS.3PL.3PL rather begin.PTCP.UNM in COMP 1767 cuérsa

go.INF course.F.SG long

'But it has really diminished a bit, also with the local people. Now they have rather begun with cross-country skiing.'

tg'i sòn fá 1768 Quaj försa DEM.UNM REL 3PL can.PRS.3PL do.INF alongside REL 3PL can.PRS.3PL maybe i 1769 få hamin' al sport

do.INF one.F.SG hour and have.PRS.3PL 3PL do.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG sport

dé ad òn aun zatgé 1770 dal tutin' dal dé of.DEF.M.SG day and have.PRS.3PL nevertheless still something of.DEF.M.SG day

171 ... uschéa, quèla quèla SO DEM.F.SG direction exact.ADJ.UNM

'That they can do alongside ... that they can do maybe for one hour and then they have done their sport for the day and nevertheless still have something of the day ... so, something like this ... exactly.'

1772 Abar quaj e clar … òzaldé végni but DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG clear.ADJ.UNM nowadays PASS.AUX.PRS.3SG.EXPL è 1773 Zacù daplé. somehow also ... offer.PTCP.UNM more

'But this is clear ... there are somehow also much more possibilities nowadays.'

1774 Alsò i bunamajn damèmja, détsch well 3PL have.PRS.3PL almost frèch.84 1775

naughty.ADJ.UNM

'Well they have almost too much, I would now say naughtily.'

<sup>84</sup> Frèch is Swiss German.

### 8 Texts

[PhM] *Pils* for.def.m.pl *gjuvens* young.pl *da* of *tia* poss.2sg.f.sg *vegliadetgna,* age *tgei* what *purschida* offer.f.sg 1776 *dati* exist.prs.3sg.expl *si* up *cheu?* here 1777

'For the young people of your generation, what job opportunities are there here?'

	- down there def.f.sg offer cop.prs.3sg more big.f.sg

'Eh, this depends on what we mean to say with offers ... job offers, I say now for example ... rather on a building site ... and otherwise there are much fewer ... offers, because ... yes, one can see that young people escape rather to outside the Grisons ... because there ... offered down there ... the offering is larger.'

[PhM] *A* and *pr̩* subord *í* go.inf *ajn* in *sòrtida?* going\_out 1784

'And in order to go out?'


'The possibilities for going out have certainly diminished ... well this you may well say.'

*Gè,* yes *sch'* if *ju* 1sg *mir'* look.prs.1sg *anavù̱s* back *… quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *fòrsa* maybe *sjad,* seven *ògj* eight 1787 *òns* year.m.pl *… schòn* really *mù* only *gljèz* dem.unm *… savèv'* can.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *í* go.inf *patschíficamajn.* peaceful.f.sg.adv 1788

'Yes, if I look back ... that was maybe seven, eight years [ago] ... only that ... one could go peacefully.'

unviarn cu hald 1789 Ju détsch ùṣa gl 1SG say.PRS.1SG now DEF.M.SG winter when many.M.PL have.IMPF.3PL simply 1790 vacanzas s scha ... lò lò a ampurtavi lu holiday.F.PL CORR there be\_important.IMPF.3SG.EXPL then NEG if 2SG.GNR 1791 durònt l' ... sònda-duméngj'ajn go.IMPF.2SG.GNR during DEF.F.SG week or DEF.F.SG Saturday-Sunday in sòrtida. 1792

going\_out.F.SG

I say now that during winter when many people used to go on holidays ... it wasn't important if one would go out during the week or during the weekend.

 èr' 1793 Co èr' adina ... fulanau here cop.iMPF.3sG always crowded.ADJ.UNM and EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3sg 1794 adina è è ... gè daplé lòcalitats, détsch always also

'Here it was always ... crowded ... and there were always also ... yes, more places, I say now.

1795 Alsò nus vèvan ... gljèz tè adin'in tég well 1PL have.IMPF.1PL - DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG also always INDEF.M.SG bit 1796 téc.

other than DEM.UNM REL 1PL do.PRS.1PL today INDEF.M.SG bit

'Well, we had ... that was always a bit different from what we do today, a bit.'

ò da scùla 1797 vagnús ... nuș well when 1sg be.PRS.1sG come.PTCP.M.SG out of school.F.SG we 1798 schòn è nátèls a da quaj

have.IMPF.1PL in\_fact also smartphone.M.PL and of DEM.UNM but 1PL 1PL

quaj 1799 duvravan bétga schi ... èxtrèm use.IMPF.1PL NEG so extreme.ADJ.UNM DEM.UNM as EXPL PASS.AUX.PRS.3SG

1800 duvrau.

use.PTCP.UNM

'Well, when I finished school ... we also had smartphones and such things, but we ... we didn't use them in such an extreme way as they are used [nowadays].'

*Pr̩* for *nuṣ* 1pl *vèvi* have.impf.3sg.expl *adina* always *nùm,* name.m.sg *nus* 1sg *santupajn* refl.meet.prs.1pl *... laṣ* def.f.pl 1801 *òtg* eight *séla* on.def.f.sg *majṣa* table *radùnda* round *… aschí* so *vèndardís* Friday.m.sg *né* or *sònda* Saturday.f.sg *… tgi* who 1802 *c'* rel *è* cop.prs.3sg *lò* there *è* cop.prs.3sg *lò.* there 1803

'For us it always meant that we meet ... at eight o'clock at the round table ... be it Friday or Saturday ... whoever was there.'

*A* and *lu* then *al* def.m.sg *bjè* much *stèv'* stay.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *lò* there *ina,* one.f.sg *duaṣ* two.f.pl *uras* hour.pl *... da* of 1804 *cumpignia* company.f.sg *api* and *sjantar* after *mav'* go.impf.3sg *ins* gnr *lu* then *... ségi* cop.prs.sbjv.3sg *quaj* dem.unm 1805 *ajn* in *quèla* dem.f.sg *bar* bar *né* or *ajn* in *tschèla* dem.f.sg *… nùca* where *tg'* rel *i* expl *vèva* have.impf.3sg *lu* then *tga* comp 1806 *trèva* pull.impf.3sg *... dad* to *ira.* go.inf 1807

'And then we would mostly stay one or two hours together and then we would go into this bar or into that one ... wherever it drew us to go.'

*Ábar* but *anzatgí* somebody *èra* cop.impf.3sg *lu* then *adina* always *lò* there *da* of *laṣ* def.f.pl *òtg* eight *… sch'* if *ins* gnr 1808 *vèva lu fatg gjù né bétg … par nuṣ vèvi* 1809

have.impf.3sg then make.ptcp.unm down or neg for 1pl have.impf.3sg.expl *adina nùm laṣ òtg lò.* 1810

always name.m.sg def.f.pl eight there

'But somebody was always there at eight o'clock ... whether we had made an appointment or not ... for us it always meant at eight there.'

*Ábar* but *ùs* now *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *è* also *samidau* refl.change.ptcp.unm *… álsò* well 1811 *végni* pass.aux.prs.3sg.expl *è* also *scrèt* write.ptcp.unm *drègj* right *a* and *saniastar.* left 1812

'But now this has changed ... well, this is what one can read (literally 'what is written') everywhere.'

[*PhM*] *Aber* but *mavas* go.impf.2pl *vus* 2pl *è* also *gju* down *Glion* pn *ni* or *gju* down *Cuera* pn *en* in *sòrtida?* going\_out.f.sg 1813

[PhM] 'But did you also go to Glion or Cuera in order to go out?'

1814 [m9] Nus mavan 1PL go.IMPF.1PL indeed also but NEG constant.F.SG.ADV yes down 1815 Cuéra né usché mavan nuṣ aun plétòst, má PN or so go.IMPF.1PL 1PL in\_addition rather, because SUBORD 1PL 1816 vèvan س bjè have.IMPF.1PL there also DEF.M.SG much go.iMPF.1PL 1PL simple.F.SG.ADV còlègs 1817 there where.REL 1PL have.IMPF.1PL mate.M.PL REL GNR can.IMPF.3SG stay over nòtg. 1818

night.F.SG

[m9] 'We would indeed go ... but not regularly ... yes, down to Cuera or otherwise we would rather go ... because we have also ... we would mostly go simply where we had friends where we could stay over night.'

1819 well GNR go.IMPF.3SG for example.M.SG also sometimes down PN

1820 tga nus vèvan gjù tga stèvan gjú COMP 1PL have.IMPF.1PL down PN 1821

there

'Well, we would also go for instance to Lucerne because in Lucerne we had friends who lived down there.'

1822 quaj COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM for 1PL of DEM.M.SG time indeed in addition 1823 highlight.PL right COMP go on.iMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG bit more other.F.SG 1824 gljut ·············································································································································································· people then go.IMPF.3SG GNR with\_pleasure or down PN yes

. . . . . . . . . . . . schiè 1825 èxáct exact.ADJ.UNM - and otherwise DEF.M.SG much really up here around

'For us these were indeed highlights at that time ... right? ... because there were more things going on, other people ... then it was a pleasure for us to go there ... or down to Cuera, yes ... exactly ... and otherwise mostly around here.'

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## **8.16 Lavur d'ufauns**

**Child labour**

(Tuatschín, Ruèras, f4 and m3, aged 69 and 73) Recorded 2016/08/24 in Rueras Duration 11'50"

[*f4*] *Oh* oh *ju* 1sg *sa* can.prs.1sg *èba* just *dí,* say.inf *cu* when *nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *a* to *scùla,* school.f.sg *cù* how 1826 *quaj* dem.unm *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *atgnamajn* actually *al* def.m.sg *sistém* system *né* or *cu* when *nuṣ* 1pl *èran* cop.impf.3sg 1827 *… gè,* yes, *tg'* subord *ins* gnr *… cu* when *nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *a* to *scùla,* school.f.sg *ùssa* now *ṣèn* cop.prs.3pl *aj* 3pl 1828 *a* at *tgèsa* house.f.sg *… stùn* must.prs.3pl *gè* in\_fact *bétg'* neg *í* go.inf *ajn* in *plaza* job.f.sg *scù* how *nus* 1pl 1829 *mavan* go.impf.1pl *… a* and *nuṣ* 1pl *vevan* have.impf.1pl *scùla* school.f.sg *tòca* until *gl* def.m.sg *avrèl.* April 1830

[f4] 'Oh I could tell [you] about the time when we used to go to school, how the system was actually or when we were ... yes, when we ... when we used to go to school, nowadays they stay at home [during holidays] ... they don't have to go to work as we used to go ... and we had school until April.'

*Ju* 1sg *vèv'* have.impf.1sg *alṣ* def.m.pl *véntgatschún* twenty-five *d'* of *avrèl* April.m.sg *nataléci* birthday.m.sg *a* and *pauc* little 1831

*sjanter* after *èri* be.impf.3sg.expl *dad* to *ira.* go.inf 1832

> 'I had my birthday on April 25 and a short time later I had to go [and start working].'

*Scha* if *la* def.f.sg *scùla* school *calava* end.impf.3sg *la* def.f.sg *sònda,* Saturday *scha* corr *gljèndiṣdís* Monday 1833 *stèv'* must.impf.3sg *inṣ* gnr *í* go.inf *ajn* in *plaza.* job.f.sg 1834

'If school ended on Saturday, on Monday one had to start working.'

*A* and *lu* then *tòca* until *gl* def.m.sg *òctòbar ̱* October *… gè,* yes *in'* one.f.sg *jè* time *… in* indef.m.sg *pèr* pair 1835 *diṣ avaun ca tga la scùl' antschajva vèv'* 1836

day.m.pl before subord subord def.f.sg school begin.prs.3sg have.impf.3sg

ins finju. 1837 GNR finish.PTCP.UNM

> 'And then until October ... yes, once ... some days before school started we could stop working.'

stèv' 1838 Abar quaj èra fétg strèng. Quaj but DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG very strenuous.ADJ.UNM DEM.UNM must.IMPF.3SG 1839 ampréma GNR go.INF and 1sG be.PRS.1sG COP.PTCP.F.SG from of DEF.F.SG first 1840 classa ... ajn plaza fétg class in job.F.SG always at farmer.M.PL yes DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG very hèfti. 1841

hard.ADJ.UNM

'But this was very strenuous. Because one had to go and ... I always worked, since the first grade (of primary school), with farmers. Yes, that was very hard.

ti stada? 1842 [PhM]E E nu'e eis and where be.PRS.2SG 2sG COP.PTCP.F.SG

[PhM] 'And where have you been?'

sulèt in 1843 [f4] Adina cò. Ju sùn ôn tgu always here 1sG be.PRS.1SG COP.PTCP.F.SG only one.M.SG year REL.1SG 1844 ju - la davùsa classa sùnd fatg tégn

have.IMPF.1sG do.PTCP.UNM hold.PRS.1sG 1sG DEF.F.SG last grade be.PRS.1sG aun gjù 1845 ju stada 1SG COP.PTCP.F.SG in\_addition down PN and by.DEF.F.PL nun.PL in job

[f4] 'Always here. I was only one year when I did, I think - during the last grade I was down in Glion and worked for the nuns.'


'But otherwise I have always been here working for farmers. But then you would go and ... .'

1848 [PhM] Aber quei ei fetg grev. but DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG very heavy.ADJ.UNM

[PhM] 'But this is very heavy.'

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[*f4*] *Gè* yes *quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… nuṣ* 1pl *ṣchajn* say.prs.1pl *magari* sometimes *djantar* between *ju* 1sg *a* and 1849 *gl* def.m.sg *ùm* man *cu* when *i* 3pl *mùssan* show.prs.3pl *cù* how *quèls* dem.m.pl *tg'* rel *òn* have.prs.3pl 1850 *stuvju* must.ptcp.unm *luvrá* work.inf *da* of *l'* def.f.sg *ujara,* war *quèls* dem.m.pl *ufauns* child.pl *… clar* clear.adj.unm 1851

*nuṣ* 1pl *èssan* be.prs.1pl *fòrsa* maybe *bétga* neg *vagnúṣ,* pass.aux.ptcp.m.pl *ábar* but *stju* must.ptcp.unm *luvrá* work.inf 1852 *còrpòrálmajn vajn nus schi fétg scù quèls.* 1853

physical.adj.m.adv have.prs.1pl 1pl so much as dem.m.pl

[f4] 'Yes that was ... we sometimes say, me and my husband, when they show how they had to work during war, those children ... sure, maybe we were not, but physically we had to work as hard as those [children].'

*Quaj* dem.unm *mavas* go.impf.2sg.gnr *té* 2sg.gnr *a* to *fumatgèsa* maid.f.sg *a* and *la* def.f.sg *prmavèra ̩* Lent 1854

*èri* be.impf.3sg.expl *da* to *gidá* help.inf *cun* with *grascha* fertiliser.f.sg *… bétar* throw.inf *ò* out *a* and *gidá* help.inf 1855

*a* to *pitgè* beat.inf *quèla* dem.f.sg *grascha,* fertiliser *sa* know.prs.1sg *bigja* neg *scha* whether *té* 2sg *ancanùschas* know.prs.2sg 1856 *quaj, api èri dad í métar trúfals … api* <sup>1857</sup> *… .*

dem.unm and be.impf.3sg.expl comp go.inf put.inf potato.m.pl and

'Therefore you would go as a maid and during Spring one had to help with dung ... spread out and help beating this dung, I don't know whether you know that, and then one had to sow potatoes ... and ... .'


assembly\_of\_houses.m.sg if dem.unm cop.prs.3sg dat 2sg known.adj.unm

'And the women, one had to help them at home and when the men would go and ... would go up to the *majṣès*, if you know this.'

*Api* and *schèvan* let.impf.3pl *aj* 3pl *… lu* then *vèva* have.impf.3sg *las* def.f.pl *fèmnas* woman.pl *da* to *lavá* wash.inf *ò* out 1861 *la* def.f.sg *tgèsa* house *… èri* be.impf.3sg.expl *da* to *lavá* wash.inf *ò* out *la* def.f.sg *tgès'* house *a* and 1862

1863 gidá a a a ... api eri dad í api help.INF and - and be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL to go.INF weed.INF potato.M.PL and dad í a zarclá 1864 graun. be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL to go.INF SUBORD weed.INF DEF.M.SG cereal

'And they let ... then the women had to clean the house ... clean the house and help to ... and then one had to weed the potato fields and then one had to go and weed the cereal fields.'

èr' 1865 Gè, quaj atgnamajn adina da fá, yes DEM.UNM be.IMPF.3sG actually always to do.INF 1sG be.PRS.1sG also nuc' ju stuèva 1866 tiar purs ... cù COP.PTCP.F.SG at farmer.M.PL where.REL 1SG must.IMPF.1SG how

flucs. 1867 dins ... fá say.PRS.3SG.GNR

'Yes, that we had to do always, I also worked for farmers where I had to ... how do you say? ... chop straw.'

 èr' fajn tg' èra 1868 Quaj al rastaus DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG straw REL be.IMPF.3SG remain.PTCP.M.SG 1869 anavùs ajn iral, scha fagèvani quaj cun

back in threshing\_floor.M.SG then do.IMPF.3PL.3PL DEM.UNM with

ghítar flucs 1870 İn api vignéva quaj INDEF.M.SG grid chopped straw.M.PL and PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM

1871 ajn ajn sacs i gl unviarn pr put.PTCP.UNM in in sack.M.PL and use.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG winter SUBORD 1872 dá dals pors.

give DAT.DEF.M.PL pig.PL

'That was the straw that remained on the threshing floor, then they would chop it with a grid and then this was put into sacks and used during winter to feed the pigs.'

1873 and after go.IMPF.3PL 3PL to alp.M.SG DEF.M.PL animal.PL and come.IMPF.3SG 1874 ... Vagnév' a la als lu come.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL DEF.M.PL farmer.PL then back and da fá 1875 fajn. be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL to do.INF hay.M.SG

8 Texts

And after this they would go to the summer pastures, the animals, and then the farmers ... would ... would come back and then one had to do hay.'

1876 A lu vagnéva quaj fatg fajn tùt a maun and then PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM do.PTCP.UNM hay.M.SG all by hand.M.SG ... lu èra bétga masch[inas] ... 1877 né quaj right? then EXIST.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM NEG machine.F.PL 1878 èri tùt siau a maun.

EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL all mow.PTCP.UNM by hand.M.PL

'And then hay was all made by hand, right, ... at that time there were no machines ... everything was mown by hand.'

1879 【 èra da quèls tga vèvan ùssa EXPL exist.IMPF.3sG of DEM.M.PL REL have.IMPF.3pL - 1sg be.PRS.1sg now 1880 tiar dus a purs tga vèvan mù vacas a a ... COP.PTCP.F.SG by two.M.PL farmer.PL REL have.IMPF.3PL only cow.F.PL and 1881 lu quaj quaj vagnéva tùt tratg cun bùvs, al and then DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG all pull.PTCP.UNM with OX.M.PL DEF.M.SG fajn. 1882

hay

'There were some that had ... . Well, I stayed with two farmers who only had cows and ... and then the whole hay was pulled by oxen.'

1883 A quaj èra hèfti. Api tiar in pur and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG strenuous.ADJ.UNM and by INDEF.M.SG farmer ju stada 1884 tgu be.PRS.1SG 1SG COP.PTCP.UNM REL.1SG must.IMPF.1SG eh en DEM.UNM quèls 1885 mù ùm a bigja

COP.IMPF.3SG only man.M.SG and woman.F.SG DEM.M.PL have.IMPF.3PL NEG famiglja e 1886

have.pTCP.UNM family.F.sG and then must.IMPF.1SG 1SG DEF.F.SG evening always 1887 tschajna fá go.INF SUBORD make.INF dinner.F.SG SUBORD make.INF pottage.F.SG

1888 manèstra, manèstra, manèstra, manèstra.

pottage.F.SG pottage.F.SG pottage.F.SG

'And this was strenuous. And I stayed with a farmer where I had to ... eh ... they were only man and woman, they didn't have children and then in the evening I always had to go and prepare dinner ... and prepare pottage, pottage, pottage, pottage.'

Lò vèv' iju ... lu mav' 1889 there have.IMPF.1sG 1sG then go.IMPF.1sG 1sG DEF.F.SG maybe DEF.F.SG bitga gju-1890 quarta ... tiar quèls lo fourth by DEM.M.PL two.PL have.PRS.1SG.1SG NEG have.ptcp.unm there 1891 Vau btga durmju, savju ira have.1sG.1sG NEG sleep.PTCP.UNM have.PRS.1sG.1sG can.PTCP.UNM go.INF to 1892 tgèsa.

home.F.sG

'There I had ... then I attended the ... maybe the fourth [form] ... at these two people's place I dind't - there I didn't sleep, I could go home.'

1893 a ... èr' ins go.IMPF.1SG 1sG to home.F.SG but DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG GNR 1894 cèrt ins lu bigja sad.M.SG in INDEF.M.SG certain sense and be\_allowed.IMPF.3SG GNR then NEG


'I would go home, but this was ... one felt sad in a certain sense and then you couln't just say at home ... go home and tell ... how hard one had to work, yes ... otherwise they would get angry, and this is now my husband.'

1898 [m3] A v vus vajs anflau ò ampau nùfs and 2PL have.PRS.2PL find.PTCP.UNM out a little new.M.PL word.PL

[m3] 'And did you find out some new words?'

 ... ju èra 1899 [f4] Na, nus vajn grat cò a a raquintava cù no 1PL have.PRS.1PL 1SG COP.IMPF.1SG just here and tell.IMPF.1SG how 1900 fumègl ... fumitgèsas. 1PL GNR COP.IMPF.3SG farmhand.M.SG maid.F.SG

[f4] 'No, we have ... I was just here and told how we ... we were a farmhand ... maids."

8 Texts

[m3] È tutina? stau intrassant, 1901 be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM interesting.ADJ.UNM nevertheless [m3] 'Has it nevertheless been interesting?' 1902 [f4] Gè gè, nuș vajn intrassant. Na, lu gju yes yes 1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM interesting.ADJ.UNM no then 1903 quaj COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM in\_fact to adina ... nus vajn 1904 gê ... quaj gju yes > DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG always > 1PL have.PRS.1PL have.PTCP.UNM 1905 angrazjajvals, névétg PN. grateful.M.PL right PN [f4] 'Yes, yes it was interesting. No, in fact one had to do and help and rake and yes ... this was always ... we had grateful [farmers], right PN?' 1906 [m3] O gè ajn gènèral schòn. Ajn gènèral èrani angrazjajvels, oh yes in general indeed in general COP.IMPF.3PL.3PL grateful.M.PL 1907 ábar ... . but [m3] 'Oh yes, in general indeed. They were generally grateful, but ... . ' 1908 [f4] I schèvan fétg. 3PL let.IMPF.3PL work.INF much [f4] 'They had [us] work a lot.' nùm ... ju 1909 da mèmi, vèvi do.INF of too\_much sometimes have.IMPF.3SG.EXPL name 18G jèd' ábar lura èr' auntin' ju 1910 saragòrd' REFL.remember.PRS.1SG still one.F.SG time but then be.IMPF.1sG 1SG 1911 mù a gidá tiar PN ad èra stau COP.PTCP.M.SG only SUBORD help.INF by PN and be.IMPF.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM dé da maz. 1912 İn INDEF.M.SG day of killing.M.SG

[m3] 'Do too much, sometimes it meant ... I still remember once, but then I only had gone helping PN and it had been a terrible day.'

1913 Ina calira pi vèvani dau marjanda, scù nus INDEF.F.SG heath and\_then have.IMPF.3PL.3PL give.PTCP.UNM snack.F.SG as 1PL andamajn tg'ins 1914 șchajn, api èri vagnú say.PRS.1PL and be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL come.PTCP.UNM in\_mind COMP GNR 1915 stuèva fá zitgé sén Scharinas. must.IMPF.3SG do.INF something on PN

`A terrible heath and they gave us a snack, as we say, and then they remembered that there was something to do up in Scharinas.'

1916 dí? è Quaj tgé quaj vut know.prs.2sg what dem.unm want.prs.3sg say.inf dem.unm cop.prs.3sg 1917 ljung, quaj e sé Miléz, Scharinas. long.ADJ.UNM DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG up PN PN

'Do you know what this means? This is a long way, this is up at Milez, Scharinas.'

	- [f4] 'Up at Milez, to the west of Milez ... ?
	- [m3] 'It takes one and a half hours per trip.'
	- [f4] '[that's what it takes you to] go on foot.'
	- DEF.M.SG boy indeed still

[m3] 'And then one would say: «Eh, you cannot have the boy do this.» and then the other would say: «Yes, of course, the boy is indeed able to do it.»'

1924 finfinala vèv' ju stù fa in, in.DEF.F.SG end have.IMPF.1SG 1SG must.PTCP.UNM do.INF INDEF.M.SG cumisjun a purtá a purtá de dèpèscha. 1925 İna INDEF.F.SG INDEF.F.SG mission and bring.INF DEF.F.SG dispatch 'In the end I had got a, a ... a mission and had to deliver a message.' 1926 Quaj Quaj ju bétg. Ju èr' in gjuvanòtar, DEM.UNM forget.PRS.1SG 1SG NEG 1SG COP.IMPF.1SG INDEF.M.SG youngster ábar ins mav' 1927 fumègl a be.PRS.1SG never COP.PTCP.M.SG farmhand.M.SG but GNR go.IMPF.3SG SUBORD 1928 gidá bap ... duvrava help.INF out because suBORD when POSS.1SG.M.SG father need.IMPF.3SG 1929 buéts, quaj quèls buéts, quèla boy.M.PL COP.IMPF.3PL DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3PL DEM.M.PL boy.PL DEM.F.SG 1930 famiglja ... a quèls – – – adina gidau al al bap family and DEM.M.PL have.PRS.3PL always help.PTCP.UNM DEF.M.SG father 1931 Schili i Schumandavan a Schul Schèv' if 3PL ask.IMPF.3PL and then say.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG father if DEF.M.PL PN 1932 ồ dad ira.» ask.PRS.3PL one.M.SG have.PRS.3SG to go.INF

'This I'll never forget. I was a youngster, I never was a farmhand but we would go and help out, because when my father ... needed some boys, these were ... these were those boys, that family ... and these always helped my father if they asked them, and then my father used to say: «If the PN ask ... one has to go.»'

1933 Basta. In' jèda vagnév' in' and in, was a jèda tschèl enough INDEF.F.SG time come.IMPF.3SG one.M.SG INDEF.F.SG time DEM.M.SG 1934 aj but otherwise yes COP.IMPF.3PL 3PL

'OK. Once one would come, and once another ... but otherwise yes, they were ...

1935 [f4]【 èra difarènt ... i da quèls EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG different.ADJ.UNM EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG of DEM.M.PL 1936 tg'èran angrazjajvels, èra da quèls tg'ins savèva REL COP.IMPF.3PL grateful.M.PL also of DEM.M.PL REL GNR Can.IMPF.3SG never 1937 fá avùnda.

do.INF enough

'It was different ... there were some who were grateful, also some for whom you never could do enough.'

1938 Gljeds ju è èr' uschéja va gju, quaj DEM.UNM have.PRS.1sG 1sG also have.PTCP.UNM DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3sG SO gè, bjè jèdas 1939 ... abar ins èra, tartgava, but GNR COP.IMPF.3SG yes many time.F.PL sad.M.SG and think.IMPF.3SG 1940 djantarajn ins bétg' have.PRS.3SG in\_between but at home.F.SG be\_allowed.impf.3SG GNR NEG 1941 hira pùs go.INF and say.INF because SUBORD 3PL say.IMPF.3PL oh DEM.UNM can.PRS.2SG 1942 té schòn, ùṣa quaj nuéta schi nausch.» 2SG indeed now DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG NEG so bad.ADJ.UNM

'This I also had, this was so ... but we were ... yes, many times sad and thought, have in between ... but at home we were not allowed to go and tell [how it was], because they would say: «Oh, you are certainly able to do that, now this is not so bad».'


[m3] «You had the disadvantage to be tall.»'

1945 [f4] Ad ju èra ina grònda a a quaj è è maj and 1sg cop.IMPF.3sg INDEF.F.SG tall.ADJ.F and DEM.UNM be.PRS.3sG never 1946 Stau flòt. Fu a détg bjè jèdas dad COP.PTCP.UNM nice.ADJ.UNM 1SG have.1sG say.PTCP.UNM many time.F.PL DAT 1947 cò pratandévani bjè daplé. 3SG.M know.PRS.2SG here demand.IMPF.3PL.3PL much more

[f4] `And I was a tall one and this was never nice. I told him many times, you know here they demand much more.'

1948 [m3] Él'èra plé grònda buéba dal la vitg. 3SG.F COP.IMPF.3SG DEF.F.SG more tall.F.SG girl of.DEF.M.SG village

[m3] 'She was the tallest girl of the village.'

8 Texts


*stau* cop.ptcp.unm *uschéja.* so 1951

[f4] 'Then they thought, oh, she is a very tall girl, she is indeed able ... yes, no, this was really so.'

*Ábar* but *té,* 2sg *a* and *gè,* yes *api* and *lu* then *mavan* go.impf.3sg.euph *ins* gnr *tùta* whole.f.sg *stat,* summer *lò* there 1952

*vèva* have.impf.1sg *da* to *fá* do.inf *quaj.* dem.unm 1953

> 'But you, and yes, and then we would go for the whole summer, there [I] had to do that.'


def.m.sg garden and do.inf dem.unm and do.inf dem.unm

'And if the weather was bad, we, the women, had to work in the house, then we had to weed the garden and do this and do that.'


'And ... and then we had to go to the fields again when it was [time] to go again ... yes.'


*pandí* hang.ptcp.m.pl *sé,* up *quaj* dem.unm *lò* here *… quaj* dem.unm *lò* here *vajn* have.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *tùts* all.m.pl 1962 *fatg.*

do.ptcp.unm

1963

[m3] 'Sometimes we say when we see the underdeveloped countries, let's put it this way, that they say that these children must work and are almost hanged; this here ... this here we all did it.'

[*f4*] *Nuṣ* 1sg *vajn* have.prs.1pl *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *atrás* through *quaj.* dem.unm 1964

[f4] 'We have experienced that.'

[*m3*] *Tùts* all.m.pl *… ò* out *da* of *scùla* school.f.sg *a* to *fumègl* farmhand.m.sg *… a* and *sjantar* after *ad* to *alp* alp.f.sg 1965 *a navèn dad alp vagnévas pér al davùs mumèn a* 1966

and away from alp come.impf.2sg.gnr only def.m.sg last moment and

*mavaṣ* go.impf.2sg.gnr *a* to *scùla.* school.f.sg 1967

> 'All ... out of school to farmhand ... and after this to the alpine pasture and you would only come away from the pasture at the last moment and then you would go to school.'

*Gè,* yes *quaj* dem.unm *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *ùṣ* now *uschéja.* so *Scù* like *quaj* dem.unm *tga* rel *quèls* dem.m.pl *lò* there 1968 *lavuran,* work.prs.3sg *vajn* have.prs.1pl *nus* 1pl *luvrau* work.ptcp.unm [f4] *gè* yes *gè* yes [*m3*] *manajval.* easy.adj.unm 1969

'Yes, it was like that. As these [people] there work we also worked [f4] yes yes [m3] easily.'


'But there were no discussions. Nobody [f4] no [m3] would refuse to do it.'

*Ábar* but *tgé* what *tga* rel *… tg'* rel *ins* gnr *discussjunèsch'* discuss.prs.3sg *aun* still *anqual* some.f.sg *jèda,* time *c'* when *in* gnr 1972 *èra buéts … ju sa tg' ju sùn stauṣ* 1973

cop.impf.3sg boy.m.pl 1sg know.prs.1sg comp 1sg be.prs.1sg cop.ptcp.m.sg

vazlè, tgé èra quaj, 1974 calf\_herdsman.M.SG what COP.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM thirty calf.M.PL | down here 1975 vi bitg sch' ju mav' a over of DEM.F.SG side but - 1sG know.PRS.1SG NEG whether 1sG go.IMPF.1SG to scùla né uschéja. 1976 school.F.SG or so

'But what ... what one still discusses sometimes, when we were boys ... I know that I was a calf herdsman, how many were there, thirty calves ... down here, over there on the other side, but ... I don't know whether I was going to school or so.

1977 Abar quaj vagnéva dau pènșum șura in but DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG give.PTCP.UNM up INDEF.M.SG homework 1978 mèmi gròn ad ju sùn parschuadjus, è ad alp ... pia too big and 1sG cor.PRS.1sG convince.PTCP.M.SG also to alp.M.SG therefore 1979 sch'in èra sùn purtgè, staus purtgè if GNR COP.IMPF.3SG swineherd.M.SG be.PRS.1SG COP.PTCP.M.SG swineherd.M.SG 1980 cun dùdișch òns, mju quántum vacas. with twelve year.M.PL and have.IMPF.1SG POSS.1SG.M.SG amount cow.F.SG

'But they would give us too much homework and I am convinced, also to the pasture ... therefore if one was a swineherd, I was swineherd when I was twelve years old, and I had my amount of cows.'

1981 Ju vèva da 1SG have.IMPF.1SG COMP pull.INF DEF.F.SG centrifuge right DEM.UNM all REL 1982 zagnún, pástar milk.IMPF.3SG DEM.3SG COP.IMPF.3SG alpine\_dairyman.M.SG shepherd.M.SG 1983

big

I had to spin the centrifuge ... right, here everybody had to milk ... there were the alpine dairyman, the main shepherd ... . '

1984 [f4] «Astg' ju aun dá in glas aua be allowed.PRS.1SG 1SG in addition give.INF INDEF.M.SG cup water 1985 Philippe?» [PhM] «Gie, bugen.» spina né aua yes with\_pleasure from DEF.F.SG tap or water.F.SG PN 1986 minerala?» [PhM] «Dalla spina.» [f4] «A té, lèvas è mineral of.DEF.F.SG tap and 2sg want.cond.2sg also

*zatgé,* something <sup>1987</sup> *pn?»*

> [f4] '«May I give you another glass of water, Philippe?» [PhM] «Yes, please.» [f4] «From the tap or mineral water?» [PhM] «From the tap.» [f4] «And you, would you also like something, PN?»'

[*m3*] *«Gè,* yes *da* dat *mé* 1sg *daj* give.imp.2sg *è* also *ina* indef.f.sg *… . Al* def.m.sg 1988 *zagnún,* alpine\_dairyman.m.sg *pástar* shepherd.m.sg *gròn,* big *pástar* shepherd.m.sg *pin,* small *a* and *'l* def.m.sg 1989

*tarsial* assistant <sup>1990</sup> *… .*

> [m3] '«Yes, give me also a ... . The alpine dairyman, the main shepherd, the second shepherd, and the assistant ...» .'

[*PhM*] *«Tgei* what *ei* cop.prs.3sg *in* indef.m.sg *tersiel?»* assistant 1991

[PhM] '«What is a *tersiel*?»'

[*m3*] *«Al* def.m.sg *tarsial* assistant *èra* cop.impf.3sg *quèl* dem.m.sg *al* def.m.sg *… al* def.m.sg 1992 *«Hausmann».»<sup>85</sup>* [*f4*] *«Al gidòntar.»* [*PhM*] *«Ah okay.»* 1993

househusband def.m.sg assistant eh OK

[m3] '«The *tarsiel* was the ... the *Hausmann*». [f4] «The assistant.»'

[*m3*] *«Quèl* dem.m.sg *èr'* cop.impf.3sg *a* at *tgèsa,* home.f.sg *quèl* dem.m.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *da* to *… da* to 1994

*lavá* wash.inf *gjù* down *la* indef.f.sg *vaschala,* dishes *trá* spin.inf *la* def.f.sg *panaglja* butter\_tub *a* and <sup>1995</sup> *…».*

[*PhM*] *«Grazia* thank.f.sg *fétg.»* much [*f4*] *«Schòn* all\_right *bian.»* well [*m3*] *A* and *… a* and *buglí* boil.inf *gjù* down 1996 *cu* when *i* expl *èra* pass.aux.impf.3sg *fatg.»* do.ptcp.unm 1997

[m3] '«He was at home, he had to ... to wash up, spin the butter tub and ...». [PhM] «Thank you very much». [f4] «That's OK.» [m3] «And ... boil [it] when it was done.»'

<sup>85</sup>Said in Standard German.

### 8 Texts


Actually the main herdsman was the ... was responsible for the animals. And there were here in the Tujetsch Valley, we had three cow pastures.'

2001 Quaj èra trajtschian DEM.UNM EXIST.IMPF.3SG three\_hundred cow.F.PL more less maybe hardly 2002 ... ábar duatschian sagir.

but two\_hundred eighty EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL sure.ADJ.UNM

'There were 300 cows more or less ... maybe barely .. but there were 280 without doubt.'


'Well, not exactly 300, [this] I don't believe ... but eh ... nearer to 300 than to 250.'


' And then there were the dairyman and the herdsman, that had, and also had his amount of cows to ... to milk.'


*vèva* have.impf.3sg *quindisch* fifteen *… al* def.m.sg *pástar* herdsman *… pin,* small *i* expl *èra* exist.impf.3sg 2011 *dus* two.m.pl *pástars,* herdsman.pl *vèva* have.impf.3sg *fòrsa* maybe *dùdisch,* twelve *a* and *'l* def.m.sg *purtgè* swineherd 2012 *vèv'* have.impf.3sg *è* also *aun* in\_addition *òtg* eight *né* or *déjsch.* ten 2013

'This ... one had to reach ... everyone their amount, those had maybe twenty cows and the dairyman had maybe eighteen and the assistant fifteen ... the second ... herdsman, there were two herdsmen, had maybe twelve and the swineherd, in addition, also had eight or ten.'

*A* and *i* expl *èra* exist.impf.3sg *… tùt* all *anzjaman* together *èr'* exist.impf.3sg *in* gnr *sis* six *parsunas.* person.f.pl 2014 *Quèls* dem.m.pl *vèvan* have.impf.3pl *da* to *mùngjar* milk.inf *las* def.f.pl *vacas* cow.pl *… la* def.f.sg *… las* def.f.pl 2015 *tschian* hundred *vacas* cow.pl *… lajn* hort.1pl *dí* say.inf *ùssa,* now *mù* only *òtgònta* eighty *… òtgònta* eighty *vacas,* cow.f.pl 2016 *la* def.f.sg *damaun* morning *a* and *la* def.f.sg *sèra.* evening 2017

'And there were ... all together six people. These had to milk the cows ... the ... the hundred cows ... let's say now, only eighty ... eighty cows, in the morning and in the evening.'

*A* and *… a* and *quaj* dem.m.sg *òn* year *tgu* rel.1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *staus* cop.ptcp.m.sg *purtgè* swineherd 2018 *sél* on.def.m.sg *cuélm* assembly\_of\_house *… quaj* dem.unm *è* be.prs.3sg *stau* cop.ptcp.unm *ana* year 2019 *tschuncòntatschún.*

fifty-five

2020

'And ... and that year, when I was swineherd at the *majṣès* ... this was in 1955.'

*Ju* 1sg *craj* believe.prs.1sg *tgu* comp.1sg *vèvi* have.sbjv.impf.1sg *òtg* eight *vacas* cow.f.pl *a* and *… a* and *lu* then 2021 *vèvani* have.impf.3pl.3pl *ábar* but *fatg* do.ptcp.unm *uschéa:* so 2022

I think I had eight cows, and ... and then they did it the following way:'

2023 «Té as ... ... al zagnún a a tauntas a 2SG have.PRS.2SG - DEF.M.SG dairyman have.PRS.3SG so\_many.F.PL and

a té as a 2024 tauntas,


'«You have ... the dairyman has so and so many, and you have to help him. You have to help him, the two of you.»'

lu è è détg: 2026 A quaj èra «Té as and DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG then also say.PTCP.UNM 2SG have.PRS.2SG Berther, té as 2027 quèlas dal DEF.F.PL COW.PL of.DEF.M.SG PN 2028 and DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG on DEF.F.PL brand.PL DEM.UNM PN 2029 ... mintga vaca. recognise.IMPF.2SG.GNR every cow.F.SG

'And they would also say this: «You take Berther's cows, you take Caduff's cows.» And that was on the brands ... so you could recognise ... every cow.'

2030 Álsò tòc'al davùs da la la well until DEF.M.SG last of DEF.F.SG summer know.IMPF.2SG.GNR DEF.F.SG 2031

nickname of.DEF.M.SG farmer of DEF.F.PL cow.PL every farmer.M.SG 2032 sia da fá. have.IMPF.3SG POSS.3SG.F.SG nickname and DEM.UNM have.PRS.1PL.1PL to do.INF

'Well, until the end of summer ... you knew the nickname of every farmer of the cows. Every farmer had their nickname, and that's what we had to do.'

 2033 A A lur' 'l purtgè aun ... cu and then DEF.M.SG swineherd have.IMPF.3SG in\_addition when 3PL 2034 ajn ajnta milk.IMPF.3PL go.IMPF.3PL.3PL in and pour.IMPF.3PL down DEF.M.SG DEF.M.SG 2035 latg ála cupa cùpa da la la a da milk into.DEF.F.SG bowl of DEF.F.SG centrifuge and DEM.F.SG be.IMPF.3SG to 2036 trá

pull.INF > pull.INF pull.INF > all DEF.M.SG milk centrifugate.PTCP.UNM

'And then the swineherd had to ... when they were milking, they would go in and pour the ... the milk into the bowl of the centrifuge and we had to pull ... pull, pull ... the whole centrifuged milk.'

'l vèva 2037 Api magari da tanaj and sometimes have.IMPF.3SG 3SG.M in addition to hold.INF DEF.F.PL cow.PL 2038 dí culas,87 quèls

in cowshed.M.SG DEM.UNM want.PRS.3SG say.INF with.DEF.F.PL DEM.M.PL

2039 òra ... autras animal.PL of.DEF.M.SG devil REL go.IMPF.3PL out o other.F.PL stay.IMPF.3PL 2040

there two.F.PL hour.PL do.IMPF.3PL NEG sound.M.SG but EXPL EXIST.IMPF.3SG


go.INF cow.F.SG

And sometimes he also had to maintain the cows in the cowshed. This means with the, those damned cows that would go out ... other cows would stay there for two hours, wouldn't move at all, but there always were some that would go, of the cows ... and then we had to go: «Puscha ... puscha ... the cows go away!»'

2043 Pi èri da schè ... quaj ... da samazá and be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL to let.INF DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG COMP REFL.Kill.INF 2044 grònda fòrza ... comp pull.INF in DEF.F.SG centrifuge DEM.UNM need.IMPF.3SG big.F.SG force in' 2045 'l quaj when 3SG.M COP.INF.3SG one.F.SG time in go.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM trá 2046 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------easy.ADJ.UNM but DEF.M.SG pull.INF in 3SG.F COP.IMPF.3SG of of killing.M.SG

"Then one had to let [it] ... that was ... terrible to bring in the centrifuge, this required much force ... when once it was in, it was easy to handle it ... but bringing it in was ... terrible.'

<sup>88</sup> Puscha is a familiar word for vaca 'cow' and is also used in order to call the cows.

<sup>88</sup> A stával is a place next to the alpine hut where the cattle stays at night.

<sup>88</sup> There is an unintelligible part between culas and quèls.

<sup>89</sup>Unintelligible part between ajn and mava.

### 8 Texts


go.INF

`Sometimes the herdsman would come ... or so, when they saw and they would help until one was again in momentum and one had hardly begun when one had to go back and leave.'


... in pin. 2055 but INDEF.M.SG | INDEF.M.SG short

> 'I should tell [you] the following case. It was a capable man, here from Zarcuns. I still see him, he was a super musician ... a short and fat man, but a ... a short one.'

2056 A sia ... sia dùna vèva nùm Marjuschla, and POSS.3SG.F.SG POSS.3SG.F.SG wife have.IMPF.3SG name.M.SG PN quèla cò cò da quòra vo vèva 2057 and DEM.F.SG house when GNR go.PRS.3sG here from here\_out have.IMPF.3SG 2058 quèl ... mù spétga DEM.M.SG - DEF.M.SG Lord COP.PRS.3SG - only wait.IMP.2SG in sisura.»91 ... [m3] «En tutta 2059 tutta malura il Segner ei all.F.SG disaster DEF.M.SG Lord COP.PRS.3SG above in all.F.SG 2060 malura il Segner ei sisura.» ... [f4] Quaj té disaster DEF.M.SG Lord COP.PRS.3SG above DEM.UNM when 2sG

<sup>90</sup> Schwung is German for Romansh slontsch.

*vaṣ* go.prs.2sg *anòra* out *drètg.* straight\_ahead [*m3*] *A* and *cu* when *nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl *vidòra,* out 2061 *ṣchèvan* say.impf.1pl *nus* 1pl *… i* 3pl *ṣchèvan* say.impf.3pl *… Marjuschla* pn *vèva* have.impf.3sg *quèla* dem.f.sg 2062 *nùm* name.m.sg *… nuṣ* 1pl *ṣchèvan* say.impf.1pl *la* def.f.sg *Barjùtla* pn *… cu* when *nus* 1pl *mavan* go.impf.1pl 2063 *spèrasò:* next\_to\_out *«En* in *tutta* all.f.sg *malura* disaster *la* def.f.sg *Barjutla* pn *ei* cop.prs.3sg *sis[ura]».* above 2064

'And his ... his wife was called Marjuschla, and that house, when you go from here in direction out of the valley, had ... «the Lord is» just wait [f4] «In every disaster the Lord is above.» [m3] «In every disaster the Lord is above.» [f4] This if you go straight ahead in direction down the valley. [m4] And when we would go down the valley, we would say ... they would say ... she was called Marjuschla ... we used to call her Barjùtla ... when we would pass by: «In every disaster Bajùtla is above.»'

*Quaj* dem.m.sg *pur* farmer *vèva* have.impf.3sg *quèla* dem.f.sg *vaca.* cow *Quaj* dem.unm *èr'* cop.impf.3sg 2065 *ina* indef.f.sg *vaca,* cow *ina* indef.f.sg *mujèra<sup>92</sup>* cow\_without\_calves *scù* as *inṣ* gnr *di,* say.prs.3sg *quèla* dem.f.sg 2066 *vèva bégja fatg vadí plé … lu quèlas*

have.impf.3sg neg do.ptcp.unm calf.m.sg more then dem.f.pl 2067 *vagnévan angarschèdas api* <sup>2068</sup> *… .*

pass.aux.impf.3sg fatten.ptcp.f.pl and

'This farmer had a particular cow. It was a «*mujèra*» as one says, this cow didn't have calves any more ... so these were fattened and ... .'

*Quèla* dem.f.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *còrna* horn.coll *usché* so *davùsòra,* back\_out *pasanca* heavy.elat *tiar,* animal.m.sg *a* and 2069 *vèva* have.impf.3sg *sé* up *in* indef.m.sg *plèc<sup>93</sup>* flat\_bell *a* and *quèla* dem.f.sg *mava* go.impf.3sg *mintg'* every 2070 *jè* time.f.sg *… tac,* onom *tac,* onom *tac,* onom *vònzaj* later *èra* cop.impf.3sg *la* 3sg.f *végn,* twenty *trènta* thirty 2071 *mèters* metre.m.sg *ò* out *dal* of.def.m.sg *múval* cattle *api* and *mavan* go.impf.3pl *tschèlas* dem.f.pl *halt* simply *sjantar.* after 2072

<sup>91</sup>This adage is said (and written) in Standard Sursilvan.

<sup>92</sup>A *mujèra*, Standard Sursilvan *mughera*, is called *leere Kuh* 'empty cow' in German.

'This one had horns that had grown backwards, a very heavy animal, and it had a flat bell, and it would always walk ... tac, tac, and a bit later it would be twenty, thiry metres away from the herd and the other cows would follow it.'

2073 nuéta schi. Na, na, nuṣ vajn yes yes EXPL COP.PRS.3SG NEG so so no no 1PL have.PRS.1PL 2074 strèntg scù ufauns. have.PTCP.UNM hard.ADJ.UNM as child.M.PL

[f4] 'Oh yes, it was not so (...). No no, we had a hard time as children.'

da lavá 2075 DEM.UNM be.IMPF.3SG to get\_up.INF DEF.F.PL four DEF.M.SG high of quaj 2076 la stat quátar. DEF.F.SG summer be.IMPF.3SG DEM.UNM to get\_up.INF DEF.F.PL four

[m3] Then one had to get up ... at four o'clock. When summer was at its highest point one had to get up at four o'clock.'

2077 [f4] Tgi c' èr' ad alp schòn, gè. who REL COP.IMPF.3SG at alp indeed yes

'Those who were at the alpine pastures indeed, yes.'

2078 [m3] Gè, tgi c' c' èr' ad alp. yes who REL COP.IMPF.3SG at alp.M.SG DEF.F.PL four out\_of bed.M.SG 2079 - Jadení rimná and go.INF SUBORD collect.INF DEF.F.PL cow.PL in cowshed.M.SG begin.INF mùngjar, tg' 2080 uschéja ... gè, c'i COMP milk.INF SUBORD COP.IMPF.2SG.GNR SO yes when EXPL 2081 vi da las aj COP.IMPF.3SG Over of DEF.F.PL DEF.F.PL eight or so 2082 manègj' milk.PTCP.UNM think.PRS.1SG 1SG receive.IMPF.3SG GNR breakfast.M.SG

[m3] 'Yes, those who were at the alpine pastures. At four o'clock out of bed and go and gather the cows in the cowshed ... start milking, so that you were so ... yes when it was around ... eight or so the milking was done I think ... [and then] we would get breakfast.'

<sup>99</sup> A cow with a plèc (or pletg) is the second main cow, which explains why the other cows follow it.

*A* and *sjantar* after *èra,* be.impf.3sg *mav'* go.impf.3sg *als* def.m.pl *tiars* animal.pl *puspè* again *a* subord *pastgè* graze.inf 2083

*a* and *lura* then *stèv'* must.impf.3sg *al* def.m.sg *… al* def.m.sg *zagnún,* alpine\_dairyman *lèz* dem.m.sg 2084

*caṣchava,* make\_cheese.impf.3sg *sjantar* after *cargjav'* load.impf.3sg *al* def.m.sg *magnùc* cheese *a* and 2085

*purtava* bring.impf.3sg *ajn* in *tschalè.* cellar.m.sg 2086

> 'And after this one had to, the animals would again go and graze and then the ... the alpine dairyman had to, he would make cheese, and after that he would load the cheese and bring it to the cellar.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *in* def.m.sg *… tgilada* slip *gjù* down *val,* valley.f.sg *ajn* in *in'* indef.f.sg 2087 *autra* other *alp,* alp *in* indef.m.sg *… in* indef.m.sg *liuc* place *cèntrau* central *pr̩* for *duaṣ* two.f.pl *alps.* alp.pl *A* and *lura* then 2088 *al,* def.m.sg *als* def.m.pl *pástars* herdsman.pl *mavan* go.impf.3pl *cùls* with.def.m.pl *tiars,* animal.pl *al* def.m.sg 2089 *… al* def.m.sg *purtgè* swineherd *a* and *'l* def.m.sg *tarségl* assistant *vèvan* have.impf.3pl *dad* to *èssar* cop.inf *ajn* in <sup>2090</sup> *… ajn* in *tégja* alpine\_hut.f.sg *a* and *buglí* boil.inf *gjù,* off *sas,* know.prs.2sg *lu* then *fá* do.inf *la* def.f.sg <sup>2091</sup> *… la scòtga.* 2092

def.f.sg whey

'That was a ... slip down the valley, into another alpine pasture, a ... a central place for two pastures. And then the, the herdsmen would go with the animals, the ... the swineherd and the assistant had to stay in ... in the alpine hut and boil off, you know, and then prepare the ... the whey.'

*Lu* then *vagnéva* pass.aux.impf.3sg *fatg* do.m.sg *tschagrún.* whey\_cheese *Cu* when *'l* def.m.sg *latg* milk 2093 *èra* pass.aux.impf.3sg *tratgs* pull.ptcp.m.sg *òra,* out *scha* corr *l'* def.m.sg *ò* have.prs.3sg *'l* def.m.sg <sup>2094</sup> *… al* def.m.sg *zignún* dairyman *finju,* finish.ptcp.unm *api* and *cargjav'* load.impf.3sg *al* 3sg.m *al* def.m.sg *magnùc* cheese 2095 *da* of *la* def.f.sg *… dal* of.def.m.sg *dé* day *avaun* before *né* or *da* of *la* def.f.sg *sèr'* evening *avaun* before *a* and 2096 *cargjava* load.impf.3sg *a* and *… purtava* bring.impf.3sg *ajn* in *tschalè.* cellar.m.pl 2097

"Then they made whey cheese. When the milk was pulled out, the, the ... the dairyman had finished, and then he would load the cheese from the day before or from the evening before and would load [it] and ... bring [it] to the cellar.

buglí la dantaun stèvaș 2098 scótga, and meanwhile must.IMPF.2SG.GNR boil.INF up DEF.M.SG DEF.F.SG whey stèvas ... quaj plé bjè 2099 quaj DEM.UNM must.IMPF.2SG DEM.UNM need.IMPF.3SG DEF.F.SG more much 2100 lèna stèva ... quaj bugli. firewood.coll - DEM.UNM must.IMPF.3SG boil.INF

And meanwhile one had to boil up the, the the whey, this one had to ... that required the highest quantity of firewood ... the whey had to boil.'

sésúra quèla ใน vagnévi 2101 A and then come.IMPF.3SG.EXPL upon DEM.F.SG layer DEM.F.SG 2102 dèv' tschagrún ... gè, al al tschagrún give.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG wey\_cheese yes DEF.M.SG wey\_cheese how tschagrún a tudèstg? ... [f4] Ziger ... [m3] Ziger ... 2103 diani al say.PRS.3PL.3PL DEF.M.SG whey\_cheese in German Ziger Ziger ... è ... stèv' 2104 a a lura cu quaj ins and then when DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG COP.PRS.3SG must.IMPF.3SG GNR 2105 dèv' fish.INF down DEM.UNM and put.INF in DEM.UNM DEM.UNM give.IMPF.3SG 2106 lu so a bit like cheese and DEM.UNM PASS.AUX.IMPF.3SG then 2107 fétg. appreciate.PTCP.UNM much

'And then this layer would come up ... this would yield the whey ... yes, the whey ... how do they call the Swiss German whey cheese? [f4] Ziger ... [m3] Ziger ... and then when this is ... is ... one had to skim this and put into into, this would produce something a bit like cheese and this was very appreciated.


<sup>94</sup> Schichta is adapted from German Schicht 'layer'; the Standard Sursilvan form is stresa.


And only when this was done was the whey too hot, and then the swineherd had the desire or or the pleasure to go and fetch water and water ... these «washtubs of twenty pounds» as we used to say ... and bring it and put it into the cheese cauldron until it was lukewarm so the pigs could eat it.'

lèzs 2114 A A lura quaj and then DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3PL DEM.M.PL already there and shout.IMPF.3PL

z115 and do.IMPF.3PL DEF.M.PL devil and open.INF up INDEF.M.SG shutter and

2116 vagnévan da quaj come.IMPF.3PL DEM.M.PL DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG of DEM.UNM of thirty thirty 2117 pòrs biabégn.

pig.PL good.ADV

'And then they were already there and shouted and behaved like the devil ... and then open a shutter and then they would come, there were good thirty ... thirty pigs.'


<sup>95</sup> There is an unintelligible part between pi and árvar.

*sjantarmjadṣ-dé* afternoon *èra* cop.impf.3sg *… inṣ* gnr *gudéva* enjoy.impf.3sg *lu* then *aun,* still *in'* one.f.sg *ura,* hour 2124 *duas* two.f.pl *… savèvas* can.impf.2sg.gnr *… schá* let.inf *dá* give.inf *l'* def.f.sg *aura* weather 2125 *pals* through.def.m.pl *lárischs.* larch.pl 2126

'And then one had to feed ... feed them ... and that was a constant movement, during the whole summer ... fewer would come, towards autumn there were fewer animals and that and also of these, instead of milking eighty cows there were maybe only fifty, of those that already were without calves ... and in the afternoon there was after all ... one could then enjoy one hour, two, ... one could ... relax.'

### **8.17 Al cuntí mèlan**

```
The yellow knife
(Tuatschín, Cavòrgja, m7, aged 64)
Recorded 2017/03/07 in Sedrun
Duration 5'50"
```
*Quaj* dem.unm *è* cop.prs.3sg *uschéa,* so *ju* 1sg *èr'* cop.impf.1sg *in* indef.m.sg *buéb* boy *da* of *nùv* nine *né* or 2127 *déjṣch* ten *òns* year.m.pl *ad* and *avaun* before *òns* year.m.pl *ṣè* cop.prs.3sg *quaj* dem.unm *clar* clear.adj.unm *tga* comp 2128 *scùla* school.f.sg *èri* cop.impf.3sg.expl *mù* only *gl* def.m.sg *unviarn.* winter 2129

'This is so, I was a boy of nine or ten years, and years ago it is clear that we attended school only during winter.'

*La* def.f.sg *stat* summer *... èra* exist.impf.3sg *simplamajn* simple.f.sg.adv *bigja* neg *scùla.* school.f.sg *Quaj* dem.unm 2130 *gnang vèva nùm vacanzas. La stat* <sup>2131</sup> *…*

not\_even have.impf.3sg name.m.sg holidays.f.pl def.f.sg summer

*èra* exist.impf.3sg *nagina* no.f.sg *scùla.* school 2132

> 'During summer ... there was simply no school. This wasn't even called holidays. During summer ... there was no school at all.'

2133 . . . . . ... al DEF.F.SG school end.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG May June.M.SG and GNR 2134 say.IMPF.3SG of DEM.UNM NEG definitively holidays.F.PL after 2135 bigja scùla, líbar. EXIST.IMPF.3SG.EXPL NEG school.F.SG free.ADJ.UNM 'School ended in May ... June, and one wouldn't necessarily call this holidays.

After that, there was no school, free.'

 2136 A A ... cò mava and - here go.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.PL boy.PL DEF.F.SG summer to alp.M.SG but 2137 - avaunt c'acall tjams dad alp èri a dad before COMP DEF.M.SG time of alp be.IMPF.3SG.EXPL then in\_addition to majses tiars. 2138 go.INF assembly\_of\_houses with.DEF.M.PL animal.PL

And ... here, during summer, the boys would go to the summer pastures, but before going to the summer pastures one had to go to the majses with the animals.'

par èxèmpal 2139 ajnta and 1PL have.iMPF.1PL for example.M.SG DEF.M.SG assembly\_of\_houses in autar vèva sé Miléz né Val Gjuf né nù 2140 Pardatsch, in PN 2141 èra. 3PL COP.IMPF.3PL also

'And ... we had our majsès in Pardatsch, somebody else had it in Milez or Val jiuv or wherever they were.'

2142 Scadín cocas, quaj schòn ... ah ... in désidéri. each.M.SG case dem.UNM COP.IMPF.3sG indeed eh eh indef.M.SG longing 2143 savaj a durmí sé lò. Tùt símpal, can.INF go.INF assembly\_of\_houses and sleep.INF up there all simple.ADJ.UNM 214 GNR can.IMPF.3SG help.INF in alpine\_hut and cook.INF and to and fro

'In any case, this was indeed ... eh ... a longing, be able to go to the majses and sleep up there. Very easy, in the hut one could help cooking and so on.'


2148 lò sé, sé majsès. stay.IMPF.1PL there up up assembly\_of\_houses.M.SG

'But this is so that ... my father ... would come ... the men, there still were more farmers there ... . We had to mind the animals, we the boys, and stayed up there, at the majses.'

2149 A grad ajnta quaj Pardatsch èran nus quátar, tschun and precisely in DEM.UNM PN buéts. 2150

boy.M.PL

And precisely in Pardatsch we were four, five boys.'


And ... one was a farmhand for that person, the other was maybe .. a farmer, as a matter of fact his son and ..., but often also one of those that were farmhands here and there.'

2154 Ad ju èra tial bap. Quaj èra and 1sG COP.IMPF.1sG by.DEF.M.SG father DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG

Scha lu ò flòt. 2155 quaj

natural.M.SG.ADV great.ADJ.UNM if then have.PRS.3SG DEM.UNM

2156 dau òns tg'ins stèv' ira

EXIST.PTCP.UNM year.M.PL REL GNR must.IMPF.3SG go.INF with.DEF.M.SG

2157 fagòt ... tiar in pur gidá. bundle by by INDEF.M.SG farmer SUBORD help.INF

And I was with my father. This was great, of course. Then there were years where one had to go ... with one's bundle ... to a farmer and help.'


`And that year he had said: «Eh, this year go to Pardatsch.» PN, my brother, had gone to another place.'

2161 Scadín tiars, api ... each.M.SG case and come.IMPF.3PL 3PL in with.DEF.M.SG animal.PL and 2162 a DEF.M.PL man.PL - sleep.IMPF.3PL there milk.IMPF.3PL and go.IMPF.3PL to 2163 damaun. home.F.SG eh DEF.F.SG morning

`In any case, and they came ... up with the animals, and ... the men ... would sleep there, they would milk [the cows] and would go home ... eh ... the next morning."

2164 Apitancintar sèra, and towards evening.F.SG DEF.F.PL four DEF.F.PL five Come.IMPF.3PL.3PL 2165 nus parsuls. up out again and so further DEF.M.SG day out COP.IMPF.1PL 1PL alone.M.PL

'And towards evening, at four o'clock, five o'clock they would come up again and so on. During the daytime we were alone.'


'The men would go home with the milk and that would take them a good hour on foot. And in any case ... my father would bring here, in addition to the lunch one needed, also cheese and bacon.'

*Quaj* dem.unm *vèv'* have.impf.3sg *inṣ* gnr *adina,* always *ábar* but *quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *tga* comp *'l* 3sg 2170 *purtava* bring.impf.3sg *fòrz'* maybe *ajn:* in *«Ò* oh *la* def.f.sg *mùma* mother *ò* have.prs.3sg *fatg* make.ptcp.unm 2171 *ina* indef.f.sg *péta.»,* cake *né,* or *né,* or *ina* indef.f.sg *tgaussa* thing *né* or *l'* indef.f.sg *autra* other *tg'* rel *ins* gnr 2172 *salagrava* refl.be\_pleased.impf.3sg *lura.* then 2173

'This we always had, but it could happen that maybe he brought here: «Oh, mother has made a cake.», right? right?, this or that so that we could feel happy.'

*Ùṣa,* now *in'* indef.f.sg *jèda* time *… stù* must.prs.1sg *fòrz'* maybe *aun* say.inf *dí* in\_addition *òdavaun,* in\_advance 2174 *mintga* every.sg *buéb* boy.m.sg *vèva* have.impf.3sg *… tarmagljava* play.impf.3sg *cul* with.def.m.sg *cuntí* knife *da* of 2175 *sac* pocket.m.sg *… tgapiala* hat.f.sg *… a* and *cuntí* knife.m.sg *da* of *sac.* pocket.m.sg *A* and *… ju* 1sg 2176 *sa* know.prs.1sg *tga* comp *ju* 1sg *vèva* have.impf.1sg *bégja* neg *cuntí* knife.m.sg *… né* or *usché* such *in* one.m.sg *tgu* rel 2177 *schèv' ajn tégja.* 2178

leave.impf.1sg in alpine\_hut.f.sg

'Now, once ... I might say in advance, every boy had ... would play with the pocket knife ... hat ... and pocket knife. And ... I know that I didn't have a knife ... or one I would leave in the hut.'

	- macaroni.m.pl and rice.m.sg and dem.unm and dem.unm

'This was nothing really ... this knife was ... anyhow ... eh this happened on a

Saturday afternoon ... my father comes up to the ... and here ... backpack ... what one must have: rice, macaroni and this and that.'

2184 and take.PRS.3SG 3SG.M take.PRS.3SG 3SG.M out INDEF.M.SG cervelat10 here la mùma dau sèrvla, má 2185 Q ina have.PRS.3SG DEF.F.SG mother give.PTCP.UNM INDEF.F.SG cervelat because 2186 tg', to " i damaun dumèngja. As té ... ah .... cù SUBORD EXPL COP.PRS.3SG tomorrow Sunday ju bigja dí in 2187 barsá stù fjuchèt roast.INF must.PRS.1SG 1SG NEG say.INF scadá 2188 né, né sas right or can.PRS.2sG warm.INF up DEF.F.SG

'And then he takes ... he takes out a cervelat: «Here, mother provided a cervelat, because tomorrow is Sunday. Do you ... eh ... how to roast [it] I don't have to tell [you] ... . Maybe you could prepare a little fire, right?, or you could warm up the ... .»'


'And I, [like a] braggart with that cervelat, because that was something scarce ... that you wouldn't find just so. And ... on Sunday ... the men went down ... and the boys were above the hut: '

2193 «Tgé fas té gjantá?» «Tgé as té?» In vèva what do.prs.2sg 2sg lunch.INF what have.prs.2sG 2sG one.M.sG have.IMPF.3sG 2194 survagnú survagnú get.PTCP.UNM cake.F.SG and and 1sG 1sG have.PRS.1sG get.PTCP.UNM sèrvala.» «Schòn?» Quaj 2195 scartèzja. INDEF.F.SG cervelat indeed DEM.UNM COP.IMPF.3SG rarity.ELAT

<sup>96</sup> A cervelat is a typical kind of Swiss sausage.

్ «What are you going to prepare for lunch?» «What do you have?» One had got a cake and ... and I ... «I have got a cervelat.» «Really?» The cervelats were very scarce.'

gjù 2196 PN ...: «Vò and DEF.M.SG PN go.IMPF.2SG down INDEF.F.SG time for DEM.F.SG cervelat gjù a 2197 Ad ju séglja sé cun èla and 1sG run.PRS.1sG down in alpine\_hut.F.SG and come.PRS.1sG up with 3sG.F ang panji sakera 2198 bigj' and DEM.UNM look.PTCP.UNM and look.PTCP.UNM EXPL COP.IMPF.3SG NEG 2199 aun already hour.F.PL COMP lunch.INF

'And PN ...: «Go down and fetch that cervelat!» And I run down to the hut and come up with it ... and that ... looked and looked, it wasn't yet time for lunch.

2200 Api prènd' cuntí ò da sac ... quèls and take.PRS.3SG DEF.ART PN INDEF.M.SG knife out of pocket.M.SG | DEM.M.PL 2201 knife.PL of handle.M.SG yellow so 2202 pauc, al a com mù tga quèl quèl la convèvà ajn little DEF.M.SG worse cop.IMPF.3SG only COMP DEM.M.SG have.IMPF.3SG in furclèta, api fò 2203 stria 'l: INDEF.F.SG witch.F.SG notch and do.PRS.3SG 3SG.M

'And then PN takes a knife out of his pocket ... one of those knives with a yellow handle ... so, let's say, a worthless knife; the worst was that it had a damned notch and then he said:'

ju bratá 2204 «Atgnamajn lès actually want.coND.1sG 1sG exchange cuntí par adina da seté a datas 2205 DEF.M.SG knife for always and 2sg give.PRS.2SG DAT 1SG DEF.F.SG cervelat

' «Actually I would like to exchange ... . You may have the knife forever and you give me the cervelat.»'


'And I looked at this knife ... wow! ... oh, well, a knife would indeed ... . . And ... the cervelat I would only give away reluctantly.'


'PN, you can have the cervelat ... . I keep the knife. No sooner said than done ... I had indeed the desire, but that was ... and I, the first thing I did ... was to go somewhere in order to carve and to walk around a bit.'


come.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG father up\_out of DEF.F.PL four 2217 mùgnsch a fatg tùt quèlas lavurs.

milk.PTCP.UNM and do.PTCP.UNM all DEM.F.PL WOrk.PL

'And then this was done ... I put the knife into my pocket. And in the afternoon at four o'clock my father comes up ..., we milked and did all these works.'

2218 ins avaun and after DEF.F.PL seven DEF.F.PL eight COP.IMPF.3SG GNR before 2219 tégja, èr' aun ditg clar ad in téc alpine\_hut.F.SG COP.IMPF.3SG still long\_time clear.ADJ.UNM and INDEF.M.SG bit buéts 98 ... . Scadín cas èr' 2220 als ju lò prsuls DEF.M.PL boy.PL every case COP.IMPF.1SG 1sG there alone.M.SG 2221 bap. with.DEF.M.SG father

<sup>97</sup> The usual form is dulatsche, as in line 2245. The form s-dulatschè has been rejected by the native speakers I consulted.

And after ... at seven, eight we were in front of the hut, it was still clear for a long time and the boys a bit ... . In any case, I was there alone with my father.'

2222 Al bap o stùmpa scù adina, ad DEF.M.SG father - light.PTCP.UNM up here INDEF.F.SG cheroot as always and òra quaj 2223 ju prèn api 1sG take.PRS.1sG out DEM.M.SG knife and carve.PRS.1sG here something and 2224 al bab via sén mè: look.PRS.3SG DEF.M.SG father over on 1sG

'My father ... lit up a cheroot up here as always, and I take out that knife and carve here something and then my father looks over to me:'

2225 «Tgé ... tgé as té lò?» «Ô ju a in ...» «Da what - what have.prs.2sg 2sg there oh 1sg have.pRS.1sG INDEF.M.SG - from quaj 2226 as ju whom have.prs.1sg DEM.M.SG knife eh DEM.M.SG have.PRS.1sG 1sG 2227 Survagnú.» «Lá mirá jèda!» ... Vau receive.PTCP.UNM let.IMP.2SG look.INF INDEF.F.SG time 2228 via ... api détg દેશઃ «Símplamajn give.PTCP.UNM over - and say.PTCP.UNM 3sG.M simple.F.SG.ADV 2229 survagnú èl uschéa?» receive.PTCP.UNM 3SG.M so

" «What ... what do you have there?» «Oh I have a ... «Whom do you have this knife from?» «Eh this one I have received.» «Let [me] see it!» ... I gave it over [to him] ... and then he said: «Just got it like this?»'

2230 «Na, ju aa stju ... ju a stju 1sG have.pRs.1sG must.pTCP.UNM = 1sG have.pRS.1sG must.PTCP.UNM no 2231 la sèrvòla, brat' à » Al bap ò give.INF DEF.F.SG cervelat exchange.INF out DEF.M.SG father have.PRS.3SG 2232 détg nuét. Fu va tartgau ... bigja bjè say.PTCP.UNM nothing 1sG have.PRS.1sG think.PTCP.UNM NEG much nuét. 2233

nothing

'«No, I had ... I had to give the cervelat, exchange [it].» My father didn't say anything. I thought ... not much ... nothing.'

<sup>98</sup> Unintelligible part between buéts and scadín.

2234 «Ò scha lura, sas té tgé, PN? Vò sé a oh if - then know.PRS.2SG 2SG what PN - go.impf.2sG up and quaj 2235 e give\_back.IMP.2SG DEM.M.SG knife DAT PN DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3Sg then also NEG 2236 ... quaj par mal. Na, quaj INDEF.M.SG DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG SUBORD REFL.do.INF harm no DEM.UNM vala nuét.» 2237 be\_worth.PRS.3sG nothing

`Oh well then, do you know what, PN? Go up and give back this knife to PN. This is not a ... you will hurt yourself with it. No, this isn't worth anything.'


" « Eh that ... I also thought, no, effectively, no.» I went up and told PN ... maybe the following day ... I don't know it ... gave back the knife. I said:'


'«Listen, this is all OK, but this knife, this isn't ... maybe you appreciate it more than I do. I think of this ... it is not, I cannot use it for carving».'

 2246 Quaj stau al DEM.UNM be.PRS.3SG COP.PTCP.UNM DEF.F.SG Sunday be.IMPF.3SG DEF.M.SG anòra99 a la 2247 bab vagnús sè father come.PTCP.M.SG out èl 2248 quaj anò gljéndisdís andamaun. DEM.UNM COP.PTCP.UNM 3SG.M go.PRS.3SG out Monday.M.SG morning

8 Texts

'This was ... on Sunday my father had come up and this took place on Sunday afternoon; he goes back Monday morning.'

*A* and *la* def.f.sg *sèra* afternoon *da* at *las* def.f.pl *quátar* four *végn* come.prs.3sg *al* 3sg.m *anajn.* in *«PN,* pn *ò,* oh 2249 *nuét,* nothing *ò* oh *ju* 1sg *sùn* be.prs.1sg *aun<sup>100</sup>* in\_addition *in'* indef.f.sg *jèda.»* time *A* and *prènd* take.prs.3sg *èl* 3sg.m 2250 *ò* out *dal* of.def.m.sg *sacadòs̱* backpack *in* indef.m.sg *cuntí* knife *réjsch* brand *néjv* new.m.sg *da* of *mòni* handle.m.sg 2251 *mèlan* yellow *… èxáct* exact.adj.unm *al* def.m.sg *madèm.* same 2252

'And in the afternoon, at four, he comes up. «PN, oh, nothing, oh I [went] once again [to Sedrun].» And he takes a brand-new knife with a yellow handle out of the backpack ... exactly the same.'

*Cù* how *'l* def.m.sg *bab* father *è* be.prs.3sg *jus* go.ptcp.m.sg *navèn* away *da* of *Cavòrgja* pn *sé* up *Sadrún,* pn 2253 *cù* how *'l* 3sg.m *ò* have.prs.3sg *òrganisau* organise.ptcp.unm *quaj* dem.m.sg *cuntí* knife *… má* because *tga* subord 2254 *quaj* dem.unm *èra* cop.impf.3sg *bigja* neg *schi* so *símpal,* simple.adj.unm *in* indef.m.sg *cuntí* knife 2255 *vèv' ins bigja grad sén cruna.* 2256

have.impf.3sg gnr neg precisely on rack.f.sg

'How my father went from Cavorgia up to Sedrun, how he organised this knife ... because it was not so simple, you don't just have a knife on the rack.'


<sup>99</sup>*Anòra* is a performance error for *anajn*.

<sup>100</sup>Unintelligible part between *aun* and *in*.

<sup>101</sup>Unintelligible part between *plajd* and *cuntí*.

'And this proudness, I appreciated enormously that my father ... had without anything, without saying a word ... the next day a brand-new knife ... exactly the same, with a yellow handle.'

2261 è zatgé tgu a maj and DEM.UNM COP.PRS.3SG something REL.1SG have.PRS.1SG never 2262 amblidau.

forget.PTCP.UNM

'And ... this is something I have never forgotten.'

# **9 Tuatschin-English word list**

The Tuatschin-English word list contains the items that occur in chapters 1-8, which represents about 1'650 lexical entries. The following observations about the lexical entries should be taken into account:


# **A**

*a, ad* /ɐ, ɐd/ (conj) and *a, ad* /ɐ, ɐd/ (prep) in, at *a* /ɐ/ (purp) to, in order to *ábar* /ˈaːbɐr/ (conj) but *accidèn* /ɐkʦiˈdɛn/ (m.n) accident *acòrd* /ɐˈkɔrd/ (m.n) piecework *ɐd usché vinavaun* /ɐd uˈʃe vinɐˈvawn/ and so on, etcetera *adina* /ɐˈdinɐ/ (adv) always *afèczjun* /ɐfɛkˈʦjun/ (f.n) affection *afòn* (Selva) /ɐˈfɔn/ (m.n) child *agid* /ɐˈʥid/ (m.n) help *agjan, atgna* /ˈaːʥɐn, ˈaʨnɐ/ (adj) own *agradgjù* /ɐɡrɐdˈʥʊ/ (adv) steep down *agrèssiv, -a* /ɐɡrɛˈsiːv, -ɐ/ (adj) aggressive

*aj, i* /aj, i/ 1. (pers.pron.3pl) they 2. (expl.pron) there *aj* /aj/ (unm.pers.pron) it *ajfar-piast* /ˈajfɐr-ˈpiɐʃt/ (m.n) hay rack post *ajn* /ajn/ (prep) in *ajn gamba* /ajn ˈɡambɐ/ (adv) well<sup>1</sup> *ajn général* /ajn ˈʥɛnɛral/ (adv) generally *ajnagjù* /ˌajnɐˈʥʊː/ (adv) in and down *ajnamiaz* /ˌajnɐˈmiɐʦ/ (adv) in the middle *ajnaquèla* /ˌajnɐˈkwɛlɐ/ (adv) at that moment *ajnasé* /ˌajnaˈse/ (adv) in and up *ajnsassèz* /ˌajnsɐˈsɛʦ/ (adv) actually, in fact *ajnta* /ˈajntɐ/ (prep) in, into; up the valley *ajntadém* /ˌajntɐˈdeːm/ (prep) in the uppermost part of *ajssa* /ˈajsɐ/ (f.n) plank, board *al* /ɐl/ (def.art.m.sg) the *ala* /ˈaːlɐ/ (f.n) 1. wing 2. side (of the roof) *alarm* /ɐˈlarm/ (m.n) alarm *alb* → *alp alp* /alb, albz/ (f.n) alp, summer pasture *als* /ɐlz/ (def.art.m.pl) the *álṣò* /ˈalzɔ/ (disc) well *alv, -a* /alv, -ɐ/ (adj) white *amblidá* /ɐmbliˈdaː/ (tr.v) forget *ambòlí* /ɐmbɔˈli/ (f.n) embolism *amiaz* /ɐˈmiɐʦ/ (prep) in the midst of, in the middle of *ampaglja* /ɐmˈpaʎɐ/ (adv) damaged *ampau* /ɐmˈpaw/ (quant) some, a bit *amplaní* (amplanèscha/amplajna) /ɐmplɐˈniː/ (/ɐmplɐˈnɛʃɐ/ɐmpˈlajnɐ/) (tr.v) fill *amprém, -a* /ɐmˈprem, -ɐ/ (ord.num) first *amprèndar* /ɐmˈprɛndɐr/ (tr.v) learn. *amprèndar d'ancanùschar* learn to know *amprèndissadi* /ɐmprɛndiˈsaːdi/ (m.n) apprenticeship *ampruá da + inf* (amprùva) /ɐmˈpruaː dɐ/ (/ɐmˈprʊːvɐ/) (tr.v) try to *ampurtá* (ampòrta) /ɐmpurˈtaː/ (/ɐmpˈɔrtɐ/) (itr.v) be important *ampustá* (ampòsta) /ɐmpuˈʃtaː/ (/ɐmˈpɔʃtɐ/) (tr.v) order *ana (da)* /ˈanɐ dɐ/ (n) year (in year dates) *anada* /ɐˈnadɐ/ (f.n) 1. year 2. age group *anavù̱s* /ɐnɐˈvʊːs/ (adv) back, backward

<sup>1</sup>*Gamba* 'leg' is only used in *ajn gamba*; the normal word for 'leg' is *tgòmba*.

*ancanùschar* /ɐnkɐˈnʊʃɐr/ (tr.v) know. *amprèndar d' ancanùschar* get to know

*ancanuschènt, -a* /ɐnkɐnuˈʃɛnt, -ɐ/ (adj) known

*ancùntar, cùntar* /ɐnˈkʊntɐr/ (prep) towards, in direction of (with human nouns, the dative marker *da* is used)

*ancurí* (anquéra) (ptcp ancurétg) /ɐnkuˈriː/ (/ɐnˈkwerɐ, ɐnkuˈréʨ/) (tr.v) look for, search

*andamajn* /ɐndɐˈmajn/ (adv) in mind. *vagní andamajn da* come into one's mind

*andamaun* /ɐndɐˈmawn/ (adv) in the morning. *la sònda andamaun* on Saturday morning

*andisau,-ada* /ɐndiˈzaw, -ˈːadɐ/ (adj) used to

*andrètg* /ɐnˈdrɛʨ/ (adv/invar.adj) right

*anèx, -a* /ɐˈnɛks, -ɐ/ (adj) annexed

*anf(a)rá* (anfjara) /ɐnf(ɐ)ˈraː/ (/ɐnfˈjaːrɐ/) (tr.v) shoe a horse

*anflá* /ɐnˈflaː/ (tr.v) find. *anflá òra* find out

*angarschè* (angrascha) /ɐnɡɐrˈʃɛː/ (/ɐngˈraːʃɐ/) (tr.v) fatten

*angjù* /ɐnˈʥʊ/ (adv) down

*angrazjè* /ɐnɡrɐzˈjɛː/ (tr.v) thank

*angrazjajval, -vla* /ɐnɡrɐʦˈjajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) grateful

*angulá* (angùla) /ɐnɡuˈlaː/ (/ɐnˈgʊːlɐ/) (tr.v) steal

*aní* (pl anjal(t)s) /ɐˈniː/ (/ɐnˈjal(t)s/) (m.n) ring

*animal* /ɐniˈmaːl/ (m.n) animal

*anòra* /ɐnˈɔːrɐ/ (adv) down the valley

*aˌnòːragjù* /ɐnɔraˈʥʊ/ (adv) down the valley

*anqual* /ɐnˈkwal/ (quant) some

*ansé* /anˈse/ 1. (adv) up 2. (circp) *da … ansé* from … up

*anṣéjgl* (pl anṣùl(t)s) /ɐnˈzejʎ/ (/ɐnˈzʊl(t)s/) (m.n) kid

*ansjaman, anzjaman* /ɐnˈsjamɐn, ɐnˈʦjamɐn/ (adv) together

*anstagl* /ɐnˈʃtaʎ/ (prep/comp) instead of

*antardá* /ɐntɐrˈdaː/ (tr.v) delay

*antir, -a* /ɐnˈtiːr, -ɐ/ (adj) whole

*antschata* /ɐnˈʧatɐ/ (f.n) beginning

*antschajvar* (antschavín) /ɐnˈʧajvɐr/ (/ɐnʧɐˈviːn/) (tr/itr.v) begin

*antupá* (antaupa) /ɐntuˈpaː/ (/ɐnˈtawpɐ/) (tr.v) meet

*antùrn* /ɐnˈtʊrn/ (prep/adv) around

*anúnzja* /ɐˈnunʦjɐ/ (f.n) annoucement. *anúnzja da mòrt* death notice

*anvidá* /ɐnviˈdaː/ (tr.v) light. *anvidá ajn* invite

```
anzardá (anzjarda) /ɐnʦɐrˈdaː/ (/ɐnˈʦjardɐ/) (tr.v) aerate (soil)
anzatgé(j) /ɐnʦɐˈʨej/ (indef.pron) something. anzatgéj in/ina something like
anzatgí /ɐnʦɐˈʨiː/ (indef.pron) somebody
anzjaman → ansjaman
aparti /ɐˈparti/ (invar.adj) special, particular
aparti /ɐˈparti/ (adv) specially, particularly
api /ˈapi/ (conj) and then
aprazjè (apracjèscha) /ɐprɐˈʦjɛː/ (/ɐprɐˈʦjɛʃɐ/) (tr.v) appreciate
ará /ɐˈraː/ (itr.v) plough
árdar (ptcp ars, -a) /ˈardɐr/ (/ars, -ɐ/) (itr.v) burn
armaul /ɐrˈmawl/ (m.n) animal
artg /arʨ/ (m.n) rainbow
arùndazjún /ɐrʊndɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) joining of properties
árvar (ptcp aviart, avjarta) /ˈarvɐr/ (/ɐˈviɐrt, ɐvˈjartɐ/) (tr.v) open
arvèglja /ɐrˈvɛʎɐ/ (coll.f.n) peas
asan /ˈazɐn/ (m.n) donkey
aschí → schi
astgè, stgè + inf /ɐʃˈʨɛː, ʃʨɛː/ (tr.v) be allowed
atacá /ɐtɐˈkaː/ (tr.v) attack
atgna → agjan
atgnamajn /aʨnɐˈmajn/ (adv) actually
atmoní /ɐtmɔˈniː/ (tr.v) admonish
atractiv, -a /ɐtrɐktiːv, -a/ (adj) attractive
atráṣ, traṣ /ɐˈtraz, traz/ (adv and prep) through
atún /ɐˈtun/ (m.n) autumn
aua /ˈawa/ (f.n) water
auc /awk/ (m.n) uncle
aucségnar /awkˈseɲɐr/ (m.n) priest
aun /awn/ (adv) in addition, moreover, still, really; bétg aun not yet
aungataun /ˌawngɐˈtawn/ (quant) as much as
aura /ˈawrɐ/ (f.n) weather
aut, -a /awt, -ɐ/ (adj) high
autar, -tra /ˈawtɐr, -trɐ/ (adj.) other
autò /ˈawtɔ/ (m.n) car
avanamajn(t) /ɐvɐnɐˈmajn(t)/ (m.n) 1. incident 2. event
avat /ɐˈvat/ (m.n) abbot
avaun /ɐˈvawn/ 1. (adv) forward, before 2. (prep) before, ago; in front of
avaunmjadṣdé̱/ɐˌvawnmjɐdzˈdeː/ (adv) morning
```
*avrél, avrèl* /ɐvˈreːl, ɐvˈrɛːl/ (m.n) April *avùnda* /ɐˈvʊndɐ/ (adv) enough *axarsézi* /ɐksɐrˈseʦi/ (m.n) rehearsal

# **B**

*bab* /baːb/ (m.n) father *badugn* /bɐˈduɲ/ (m.n) birch *bagagè* (baghègja) /bɐɡɐˈʥɛ/ (/bɐˈgɛʥɐ/) (tr.v) build. *bagagè da néjv* renovate *bagagè gjù* remove, mine, dismantle *baghétg* /bɐˈɡeʨ/ (m.n) building *bajbar* (bubín) /ˈbajbɐr/ (/buˈbiːn/) (tr.v) drink *bajònèta* /bɐjɔˈnɛtɐ/ (f.n) bayonet *bal* /baːl/ (m.n) ball *balantschè* /bɐlɐnˈʧɛː/ (itr.v) roll *balapaj* /bɐlɐˈpaj/ (m.n) football *balèzja* /bɐˈlɛʦjɐ/ (f.n) 1. beauty 2. (elat) very beautiful *banadí, banadí òra* (banadèscha) /bɐnɐˈdiː/ (/bɐnɐˈdɛʃɐ/) (tr.v) bless *banadiczjun* /bɐnɐdikˈʦjun/ (f.n) blessing *bandiara* /bɐnˈdiɐrɐ/ (f.n) flag *bar* /baːr/ (f.n) bar *bara* /ˈbaːrɐ/ (f.n) corpse *barba* /ˈbarbɐ/ (f.n) beard *barbís* /bɐrˈbiːs/ (m.n) moustache *barcún* /bɐrˈkun/ (m.n) shutter *bargí* (bragja) /bɐrˈʥiː/ (/ˈbraːʥɐ/) (itr.v) cry *barlòt* /bɐrˈlɔt/ (m.n) sorcery *barsá* (brassa) /bɐrˈsaː/ (/ˈbrasɐ/) (tr.v) roast *barṣchè* (briṣcha) /bɐrˈʒɛː/ (/ˈbriːʒɐ/) (tr/itr.v) burn *basa* /ˈbaːzɐ/ (f.n) base *basèlgja* /bɐˈzɛlʥɐ/ (f.n) church *bassa* /ˈbasɐ/ (f.n) Switzerland outside the canton of Grisons *bast* /baʃt/ (m.n) packsaddle *basta* /ˈbaʃtɐ/ (interj) enough *bau* /baw/ (m.n) beetle *baun* /bawn/ (m.n) 1. bench 2. ridge *baun-pégna* /bawn-ˈpeɲɐ/ (m.n) oven bench *baud* /bawd/ (adv) early *bé* → *bétga*

*béádi* /beˈaːdi/ (m.n) grandson *béádia* /beˈaːdiɐ/ (f.n) granddaughter *bégn* /beːɲ/ (adv) well *bèn* /bɛn/ (adv) yes (in response to a negative statement or question) *bétar* (ptcp béz, -a) /ˈbetɐr/ (/beʦ, -ɐ/) (tr.v) throw *bètlar* /ˈbɛtlɐr/ (m.n) beggar *bétga, bétg, bigja, bigj', bé* /ˈbeʨɐ, beʨ, ˈbiʥɐ, biʥ, be/ (neg) no *bétòná* /betɔˈnaː/ (tr.v) concrete *bi, bjalṣ, bjala* /biː, bjalz, ˈbjalɐ/ (adj) beautiful, nice *bian, bunṣ, buna* /ˈbiɐn, bunz, ˈbuna/ (adj) good *bianmartgau* /ˌbiɐnmɐrˈʨaw/ (invar.adj) cheap *bigja, bigj'* → *bétga bitschè* (bétscha) /biˈʧɛː/ (/ˈbeːʧɐ/) (tr.v) kiss *bjɐbégn/bjèbégn* /bjɐˈbéɲ/bjɛˈbéɲ/ (adv) a bit more than, around *bjala, bjals* → *bi bjalaura* /bjɐˈlawrɐ/ (f.n) nice weather *bjè* /bjɛː/ (adv) much, often *bjèbégn* → *bjabégn bjèrṣ, bjèraṣ* /bjɛrz, ˈbjɛrɐz/ (pl.quant.det/pron) many *blètsch, -a* /blɛʧ, -ɐ/ (adj) wet *blòc* /blɔk/ (m.n) block *blòca* /ˈblɔkɐ/ (coll.f.n) blocks *blùt, -a* /blʊt, -ɐ/ (adj) naked. *blùt danè* money in cash *blusa* /ˈbluːzɐ/ (f.n) blouse *bòb* /bɔb/ (m.n) bob *bògn* /bɔɲ/ (m.n) bath *bòla* /ˈbɔːlɐ/ (f.n) punch *braja* /ˈbraːjɐ/ (f.n) trouble. *vaj braja* have troubles *brajnta* /ˈbrajntɐ/ (f.n) basket *bratá* /brɐˈtaː/ (tr.v) exchange *bratsch* /braʧ/ (m.n) arm *bratscha* /ˈbraʧɐ/ (coll.f.n) (both) arms *brav, -a* /ˈbraːv, -ɐ/ (adj) brave, important *brèmṣa* /ˈbrɛmzɐ/ (f.n) break *brutal, -a* /bruˈtaːl, -ɐ/ (adj) terrible *buantá* /bwɐnˈtaː/ (tr.v) water (animals) *buantad* /bwanˈtad/ (elat) very good, excellent *bubrantá* (bubrjanta) /bubrɐnˈtaː/ (/bubˈrjantɐ/) (tr.v) ) make drunk

*bùc* /bʊk/ (m.n) billy goat *bùca* /ˈbʊkɐ/ (f.n) mouth. *dá la bùca ṣur da* make derisive remarks about *buéb* (pl buéts) /bweb/ (/bweʦ/) (m.n) boy, son *buéba* /ˈbwebɐ/ (f.n) girl, daughter *buébanaglja* /bwebɐˈnaːʎɐ/ (coll.f.n) children *bùf* (pl bùs/bùfs) /bʊːf/ (/bʊːs/bʊːfs/) (m.n) ox *buglí* /buˈʎiː/ (tr.v) boil *bugnè* (bògna) /buˈɲɛː/ (/ˈbɔɲɐ/) (tr.v) give water *bumbardá* /bumbɐrˈdaː/ (tr.v) bomb *bunamajn* /ˌbunɐˈmajn/ (adv) 1. almost 2. really *buna, bunṣ* → *bian bùra* /ˈbʊːrɐ/ (f.n) block *bùrdi* /ˈbʊːrdi/ (m.n) load *bùrsa* /ˈbʊrsɐ/ (f.n) wallet *buṣchia* /buˈʒiɐ/ (f.n) nickname *bùt* /bʊt/ (f.n) barrel *butèglja* /buˈtɛʎɐ/ (f.n) bottle *bürò* /ˈbyrɔ/ (m.n) office

# **C**

*ca* /kɐ/ (rel) that, who (in combination with *tgéj* 'what' and *tgi* 'who') *cacèta* /kɐˈʦɛtɐ/ (f.n) pot *cadajna* /kɐˈdajnɐ/ (f.n) chain *cafanún* /kɐfɐˈnun/ (m.n) church banner *calá* /kɐˈlaː/ (itr.v) end. *calá da + inf* stop doing *caldèra* /kɐlˈdɛːrɐ/ (f.n) cauldron *calira* /kɐˈliːrɐ/ (f.n) heath *calum* /kɐˈlum/ (m.n) thigh *calur/culur* /kɐˈluːr/kuˈluːr/ (f.n) colour *camarad* /kɐmɐˈraːd/ (m.n) mate *caná* /kɐnáː/ (tr.v) stab *cantá* (cònta) /kɐnˈtaː/ (/ˈkɔntɐ/) (tr/itr.v) sing *cantina* /kɐnˈtinɐ/ (f.n) canteen *cantún* /kɐnˈtun/ (m.n) 1. corner 2. canton *canzún* /kɐnˈʦun/ (f.n) song *capí* /kɐˈpiː/ (tr.v) understand *capitá* /kɐpiˈtaː/ (itr.v) happen *capitani* /kɐpiˈtaːni/ (m.n) captain

*caplòn* /kɐˈplɔn/ (m.n) chaplain *caplùta* /kɐˈplʊtɐ/ (f.n) chapel *cáput* /ˈkaput/ (adv) shattered *car* /kaːr/ (m.n) bus *car, -a* /kaːr, -ɐ/ (adj) dear *carèzja* /kɐˈrɛʦjɐ/ (f.n) love *cargè* /kɐrˈʥɛː/ (tr.v) 1. carry 2. drove animals to the summer pastures *carschantá* (carschjanta) /kɐrʃɐnˈtaː/ (/kɐrˈʃjantɐ/) (tr.v) thrive *carstgaun* /kɐrʃˈʨawn/ (m.n) human being *carta* /ˈkartɐ/ (f.n) 1. letter 2. map *cas* /kas/ (m.n) case *caṣchè* /kɐˈʒɛː/ (itr.v) make cheese *caschnè* /kɐʃˈnɛː/ (m.n) hay rack *castí* (pl castjal(t)s) /kɐʃˈtiː/ (/kɐʃˈtjal(t)s/) (m.n) castle *castitg* /kɐˈʃtiːʨ/ (m.n) punishment *catòlic, -a* /kɐˈtɔlik, -ɐ/ (adj/n) Catholic *catschadur* /kɐʧɐˈduːr/ (m.n) hunter *catschè* /kɐˈʧɛː/ (tr.v) 1. hunt 2. drove (animals) 3. *catschè ajn* throw into *catschéjgl* (pl catschùl(t)s) /kɐˈʧejʎ/ (/kɐˈʧʊl(t)s/) (m.n) sock *catschina* /kɐˈʧiːnɐ/ (f.n) limestone *cavá* /kɐˈvaː/ (tr.v) dig. *cavá òra* recover (metals) *cavaza* /kɐˈvaʦɐ/ (f.n) skull *cavèstar* /kɐˈvɛʃtɐr/ (m.n) bridle *caviartg, cavòrtgs, cavòrtga* /kɐˈviɐrʨ, kɐˈvɔrʨ, -a/ (adj) hollow *cavréjgl* (pl cavrùl(t)s) /kɐvˈrejʎ/ (/kɐvˈrʊl(t)s/) (m.n) roe deer. *bùc cavréjgl* male roe deer. *tgaura cavréjgl* female roe deer *cazè* /kɐˈʦɛː/ (m.n) shoe *cazùla* /kɐˈʦʊːlɐ/ (f.n) light *cégn* /ʦeːɲ/ (m.n) swan *cèntrau, -ada* /ʦɛnˈtraw, -aːdɐ/ (adj) central *cèntrifuga* /ˌʦɛntriˈfuːɡɐ/ (f.n) centrifuge *cèntrifugá* /ˌʦɛntrifuˈɡaː/ (tr.v) centrifugate *cèrt, -a* /ʦɛrt, -ɐ/ (adj) certain *circa* /ˈʦirkɐ/ (adv) about, around *clar, -a* /klaːr, -ɐ/ (adj) clear *classa* /ˈklasɐ/ (f.n) class *claustra* /ˈklawʃtrɐ/ (f.n) monastery *clavau* /klɐˈvaw/ (m.n) hay barn

*clégj, clétg* /kleʥ, kleʨ/ (m.n) luck *clumá* (clòma) /kluˈmá/ (/ˈklɔmɐ/) (tr.v) call *clutgè* /kluˈʨɛ/ (m.n) clock tower. *clutgè-basèlgja* church tower *cò* /kɔ/ (adv) here *còc* /kɔk/ (m.n) core *còca* /ˈkɔkɐ/ (f.n) small cake *cògna* /ˈkɔɲɐ/ (f.n) bitch (female dog) *còléga* /kɔˈleɡɐ/ (n) colleague *còmpatènza* /kɔmpɐˈtɛnʦɐ/ (f.n) competence *còmplicazjun* /ˌkɔmplikɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) complication *còmpjutar* /kɔmˈpjuːtɐr/ (m.n) computer *còmunal, -a* /kɔmunˈaːl, -ˈaːlɐ/ (adj) communal *cònfadarazjun* /ˌkɔnfɐdɐraˈʦjun/ (f.n) confederation *còntáct* /kɔnˈtakt/ (m.n) contact *còntèxt* /kɔnˈtɛkst/ (m.n) context *còrda* /ˈkɔrdɐ/ (f.n) string, rope. *ir' ajn còrda* go in single file *còrna* /ˈkɔrnɐ/ (coll.f.n) horns *còrns* → *tgérn còrpòralmajn* /kɔrpɔˈraːlˌmajn/ (adv) physically *còschar* /ˈkɔʃɐr/ (irr.itr.v) keep quiet, keep silent *còtgal* /ˈkɔʨɐl/ (m.n) charcoal *còtgla* /ˈkɔʨlɐ/ (coll.f.n) charcoal *còtschans, còtschna* → *tgétschan craj* /kraj/ (irr.tr.v) believe *crap* /krap/ (m.n) stone *crapa* /ˈkrapɐ/ (coll.f.n) stones *crèschar* (carschín) /ˈkrɛʃɐr/ (/kɐrˈʃiːn/) (itr.v) grow, grow up *crèst* /krɛʃt/ (m.n) 1. hill 2. high ground *criac* (pl cròcs) /ˈkriɐk/ (/krɔks/) (m.n) plough *cristala* /kriʃˈtalɐ/ (f.n) crystal *cròtscha* /krɔˈʧɐ/ (f.n) plough *cruna* /ˈkruːnɐ/ (f.n) rack, bookshelf *crusch* /kruːʃ/ (f.n) cross *cu, cura* /kuː, ˈkuːrɐ/ 1. (interr.pron) when 2. (rel.pron) when *cúa* /ˈkuɐ/ (f.n) tail *cùdisch* /ˈkʊdiʃ/ (m.n) book *cudizá* (cudéza) /kudiˈʦaː/ (/kuˈdeːʦɐ/) (tr.v) tease, provoke *cuélm* /kwelm/ (m.n) 1. peak (of a mountain) 2. mountain 3. assembly of houses *cuérṣ* /kwerz/ (m.n) course *cuérsa* /ˈkwersɐ/ (f.n) course. *cuérsa ljunga* cross-country skiing *cuért, -a* /kwert, -ɐ/ (adj) short *cugljaná* (cugljuna) /kuʎɐˈnaː/ (/kuˈʎuːnɐ/) (tr.v) cheat *cugljèda* /kuʎɛːdɐ/ (f.n) clotted milk *cugljún* /kuˈʎun/ (m.n) scoundrel *cùgn* /kʊɲ/ (m.n) wedge *culiar* (pl culjars) /kuˈliɐr/ (/kuˈljars/) (m.n) collar *culiaz* /kuˈliɐʦ/ (m.n) neck *cumandá* (camònda) /kumɐnˈdaː/ (/kɐˈmɔndɐ/) (tr.v) order *cumandamèn* (pl cumandamajnts) /kumɐndɐˈmɛn/ (/kumɐndɐˈmajnts/) (m.n) commandment *cumar* /kuˈmaːr/ (f.n) chatterbox *cuminònza* /kumiˈnɔnʦɐ/ (f.n) 1. community 2. working-group *cumissjuná* /kumisjuˈnaː/ (tr.v) commission *cumpagnia* /kumpɐˈɲiɐ/ (f.n) association *cumpagnè* (cumpògna, cumpagnajn) /kumpɐˈɲɛː/ (/kumˈpɔɲɐ, kumpɐˈɲajn/) (tr.v) accompany *cumpignia* /kumpiɲˈiɐ/ (f.n) company. *stá da cumpignia* stay together *cùmpra* /ˈkʊmprɐ/ (f.n) shopping *cumprá* (cùmpra) /kumˈpraː/ (/ˈkʊmprɐ/) (tr.v) buy *cun* /kun/ (prep) with *cunquaj tga* /kunˈkwaj ʨɐ/ (comp) since *cunscianza* /kunsˈʦiɐnʦɐ/ (f.n) conscience *cuntantá* (cuntjanta) /kuntɐnˈtaː/ (/kunˈtjantɐ/) (tr.v) satisfy *cùntar* → *ancùntar cuntí* (pl cuntjal(t)s) /kunˈtiː/ (/kunˈtjal(t)s/) (m.n) knife *cuntjanz, -a* /kuntˈjanʦ, -ɐ/ (adj) pleased, happy *cunzún* /kunˈʦun/ (adv) especially *cùp* /kʊp/ (m.n) bowl *cùpa* /ˈkʊpɐ/ (f.n) bowl *cupaná* /kupɐˈnaː/ (tr.v) fertilise (e.g. bees) *cùr* /kʊːr/ (m.n) heart *curdá* (crùda) /kurˈdaː/ (/ˈkrʊːdɐ/) (itr.v) fall *curégjar* (curagín) /kuˈreʥɐr/ (/kurɐˈʥiːn/) (tr.v) correct *curí* (cùra) /kuˈriː/ (/ˈkʊːrɐ/) (itr.v) go on. *Tgéj cùra?* What's going on? *curjòṣ, -a* /kurˈjɔz, -ɐ/ (adj) strange *curnada* /kurˈnaːdɐ/ (f.n) push with horns

*curnagl* /kurˈnaʎ/ (m.n) Alpine chough *curnaglja* /kurˈnaʎɐ/ (coll.f.n) Alpine choughs *curònta* /kuˈrɔntɐ/ (num) forty *curtín* /kurˈtiːn/ (m.n) garden *cuṣchina* /kuˈʒiːnɐ/ (f.n) kitchen *cuṣchiná* /kuʒiˈnaː/ (tr/itr.v) cook *cuṣchinada* /kuʒiˈnaːdɐ/ (f.n) cooking *custá* (cuésta) /kuʃˈtaː/ (/ˈkweʃtɐ/) (tr.v) cost *cusunz* /kuˈzunʦ/ (m.n) tailor *cuviarar* (cuvrín) (ptcp cuvrétg) /kuˈviɐrɐr/ (/kuvˈriːn, kuvˈreʨ/) (tr.v) cover *cuzá* (quéza) /kuˈʦaː/ (/ˈkweʦɐ/) (itr.v) last

# **D**

*da, dad* /dɐ, dɐd/ 1. (prep) 1.i of 1.ii from 1.iii during 2. (comp) during 3. dative marker *dá* /daː/ (tr.v) 1. give. *dá anavù̱s* give back. *dá gjù* fall down, hand over. *dá vi* hand over 2. play (cards, sports, etc.) 3. (exist.v) there is *dacídar* /dɐˈʦiːdɐr/ (tr.v) decide *dacù* /dɐˈkʊ/ (interr.pron) why *dadajnṣ* /dɐˈdajnz/ (adv) farther behind, in direction up the valley *daditg* /dɐˈdiːʨ/ (adv) a long time ago *dadò* /dɐˈdɔː/ (prep) after (in direction down the valley) *dafartauntiar tga* /dɐfɐrˈtawnˌtiɐr ʨɐ/ (comp) whilst *damanajval da* /dɐmɐˈnajvɐl dɐ/ (prep) near *damaun* /dɐˈmawn/ 1. (f.n) morning 2. (adv) tomorrow *damèmja* /dɐˈmɛmjɐ/ (adv) too much *danè* /dɐˈnɛː/ (m.n) money *dantaun* /dɐnˈtawn/ 1. (adv) meanwhile 2. (conj) however, but *danùndar* /dɐˈnʊndɐr/ (interr.pron) where from *dapjandar* (dapandín, impf dapandèvan) /dɐˈpjandɐr/ (/dɐpɐnˈdiːn, dɐpɐnˈdɛːvɐn/) (itr.v) depend *daplé* /dɐˈpleː/ (adv) more *darasá* /dɐrɐˈzaː/ (tr.v) spread *dargún* /dɐrˈɡun/ (m.n) torrent *darivá* /dɐriˈvaː/ (itr.v) come from *dascrívar* /dɐʃˈkriːvɐr/ (tr.v) describe *daṣɡrazjè* /dɐʒgrɐˈʦjɛː/ (itr.v) have an accident *daspèraṣ* /dɐˈʃpɛrɐṣ/ (adv) next to it

### 9 Tuatschin-English word list

*dastadá* /dɐʃtɐˈdaː/ (irr.tr.v) wake up *dastùrbá* /dɐʃtʊrˈbaː/ (tr.v) disturb *datá* (datèscha) /dɐˈtaː/ (/dɐˈtɛʃɐ/) (itr.v) date *datiar* /dɐˈtiɐr/ (adv) next to it, alongside *dátum* /ˈdaːtum/ (m.n) date *davantá* (davjanta) /dɐvɐnˈtaː/ (/dɐvˈjantɐ/) (itr.v) become *davauntiar* /dɐˈvawnˌtiɐr/ (adv) in front of (it), at the front *davùṣ, -a* /dɐˈvʊːz, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) last 2. (prep) behind *davùsajn* /dɐvʊːzˈajn/ (adv) into … from the back *davùsòra* /dɐˌvʊːzˈɔːrɐ/ (adv) backwards *davùstiar* /dɐvʊːsˈtiar/ (adv) in the back *dé* (pl dis) /deː/ (/diːs/) (m.n) day. *al dé ò(ra)* the whole day *décadènza* /dekɐˈdɛnʦɐ/ (f.n) decadence *dècèmbar* /dɛˈʦɛmbɐr/ (m.n) december *déjṣch* /dejʒ/ (num) ten *dépò̱nar* /deˈpɔːnɐr/ (tr.v) store *dèrgjar* (dargín) (ptcp dèrs) /dɛrˈʥɐr/ (/dɐrˈʥiːn, dɛrs/) (tr.v) spill. *dergjar gjù* demolish *désidé̱ri* /deziˈdeːri/ (m.n) longing *déstiná* /deʃtiˈnaː/ (itr.v) suite *déstruí* /deʃtruˈiː/ (tr.v) destruct *dèt* /dɛt/ (m.sg) finger *dèta* /dɛtɐ/ (coll.f.sg) fingers *dètg, -a* /dɛʨ, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) real, terrible 2. (adv) much *détga* /ˈdeʨɐ/ (f.n) legend *di* /di/ dative marker (obsolescent) *di, dis* /di, dis/ definite dative article (obsolescent) *dí* /diː/ (irr.tr.v) say *dian* (pl djants) /ˈdiɐn/ (/djants/) (m.n) tooth *diaṣ* (pl diaṣ) /ˈdiɐz/ (/ˈdiɐz/) (m.n) back *difarènt, -a* /difɐˈrɛnt, -ɐ/ (adj) different *difarènza* /difɐˈrɛnʦɐ/ (f.n) difference *dificultat* /difikulˈtaːt/ (f.n) difficulty *digrá* (daghira) /diɡˈraː/ (/dɐˈɡiːrɐ/) (itr.v) drip *dir, -a* /diːr, -ɐ/ (adj) hard *dirèczjun* /dirɛkˈʦjun/ (f.n) direction *discuérṣ* /diʃˈkwerz/ (m.n) conversation *discusjun* /diʃkuˈsjun/ (f.n) discussion

*discusjuná* (discusjunèscha) /diʃkusjuˈnaː/ (/diʃkusjuˈnɛʃɐ/) (tr.v) discuss *diṣɡrazja* /diʒˈgraːʦjɐ/ (f.n) tragedy *dissònant, -a* /disɔˈnant, -ɐ/ (adj) dissonant *ditg* /diːʨ/ (adv) long *djantar* /ˈdjantɐr/ (prep) among *djantarájn* /ˌdjantɐrˈajn/ (adv) in between *dju* /dju/ (m.n) god *dòcumèntá* /dɔkumɛnˈtaː/ (tr.v) document *dòmaṣduṣ (m), -duaṣ (f), òmaṣduṣ, -duaṣ* /(ˈd)ɔmaʒˈduːz, -ɐz/ (num) both *dòminant, -a* /dɔmiˈnant, -ɐ/ (adj) dominant *drègj, drètg, -a* /drɛʥ, drɛʨ, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) right 2. (adv) straight ahead *drètg* → *drègj dua* /duɐ/ (num) two, in *duatschian* two hundred, *dua mili* two thousand, and *dua pèra* two pairs *duatschian* /ˌduaˈʧiɐn/ (num) two hundred *duaj* /dwaj/ (irr.tr.v) must *dubitá* (dubéta) /dubiˈtaː/ (/duˈbeːtɐ/) (tr.v) doubt *dùdiṣch* /ˈdʊːdiʒ/ (num) twelve *dulatschè* /dulaʧɛː/ (tr/itr.v) carve *dumagnè* (damògna) /dumɐˈɲɛ/ (/dɐˈmɔɲɐ/) (tr.v) cope with *dumandá* (damònda) /dumɐnˈdaː/ (/dɐˈmɔndɐ/) (tr.v) ask *dumbrá* /dumbˈraː/ (tr.v) count *duméngja* /duˈmenʥɐ/ (f.n) Sunday *dun* /dun/ (m.n) gift *dùna* /ˈdʊnɐ/ (f.n) woman, wife *durmantá* (durmjanta) /durmɐnˈtaː/ (/durˈmjantɐ/) (tr.v) make sleep *durmí* (dòrma) /durˈmiː/ (/ˈdɔrmɐ/) (itr.v) sleep. *durmí òra* have a good sleep *durònt* /duˈrɔnt/ (prep) during *duṣ (m), duaṣ (f)* /duːz, ˈduɐz/ (num) two *dustá* (dòsta) /duʃˈtaː/ (/ˈdɔʃtɐ/) (itr.v) keep away *duvrá* (drùva) /duvˈraː/ (/ˈdrʊːvɐ/) (tr.v) 1. use 2. must, should

# **E**

*è* → *èra éba, èba* /ˈebɐ, ˈɛba/ (adv) exactly, precisely, in fact, after all *èfè̱ct* /ɛˈfɛkt/ (m.n) effect *èfèctív* /ɛfɛkˈtiv/ (adv) effectively, as a matter of fact *èɡṣístar* /ɛgˈziʃtɐr/ (itr.v) exist

```
ejf (pl ùfs) /ejf/ (/ʊfs/) (m.n) egg
èl (pl èls) /ɛl/ (/ɛls/) (pers.pron) he, they
èla (pl èlas) /ˈɛlɐ/ (/ˈɛlɐs/) (pers.pron) she, they
èlè̱ctric, -a /ɛˈlɛktrik, -a/ (adj) electric
énò̱rm, -a /eˈnɔrm, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) enormous 2. (adv) enormously
ér, éjr /eːr, ejr/ (adv) yesterday
èra, è /ˈɛːrɐ, ɛː/ (adv) also
éṣch /eʒ/ (m.n) door
èssar /ˈɛsɐr/ (cop, itr.v) be. èssar da + inf have to
étápa /eˈtapɐ/ (f.n) leg
étg /eʨ/ (m.n) ointment
éxáct /ekˈsakt/ (adv) exactly
éxáman /ekˈsamɐn/ (m.n) exam
èxè̱mpal /ɛkˈsɛmpɐl/ (m.n) example
èxnù̱m /ɛksˈnʊm/ (adv) definitively, imperatively
èxtra /ˈɛkstrɐ/ (adv) on purpose
èxtrè̱m, -a /ɛksˈtrɛːm, -ɐ/ (adj) extreme
```
# **F**

*fá* /faː/ (tr.v) do, make. *fá atrás* experience. *fá gjù* make an appointment *fadaral, -a* /fɐdɐˈral, -ɐ/ (adj) federal *fadiè* (fadia, fadiajn, fadiava) /fɐdiˈɛː/ (/fɐˈdiɐ, fɐdiˈajn, fɐdiˈavɐ/) (tr.v) earn *fagljét* /fɐˈʎet/ (m.n) youngest son *fagòt* /fɐˈɡɔt/ (m.n) bundle *fajn* /fajn/ (m.n) hay. *fá fajn* make hay *falian* (pl faljans) /fɐˈliɐn/ (/fɐˈljans/) (m.n) spider *falju, falida* /fɐˈlju, fɐˈlidɐ/ (adj) wrong *famiglja* /fɐˈmiʎɐ/ (f.n) family *fana* /ˈfaːnɐ/ (f.n) flag *fanadur* /fɐnɐˈduːr/ (m.n) July *fanèstra* /fɐˈnɛʃtrɐ/ (f.n) window *fantasia* /fɐntɐˈziɐ/ (f.n) fantasy *fardá* (fréjda) /fɐrˈdaː/ (/ˈfrejdɐ/) (tr/itr.v) smell *farmá* /fɐrmaː/ (tr.v) tie *farmada* /fɐrˈmadɐ/ (f.n) reservoir *faruct* /faˈrukt/ (intens) crazily, very *fascha* /ˈfaʃɐ/ (f.n) bandage *fasciná* (fascinèscha) /fɐsʦiˈnaː/ (/fɐsʦiˈnɛʃɐ/) (tr.v) fascinate

*fatg* /faʨ/ (m.n) property *fatscha* /ˈfaʧɐ/ (f.n) face *favrè* /fɐvˈrɛː/ (m.n) February *fégl* /feːʎ/ (m.n) 1. son 2. leaf *féglja* /ˈfeːʎɐ/ 1. (f.n) daughter 2. (coll.f.n) leaves *féjra* /ˈfejrɐ/ (f.n) market *fèl* /fɛl/ (m.n) gall *fèmna* /ˈfɛmnɐ/ (f.n) 1. woman 2. female *fèrm, -a* /fɛrm, -ɐ/ (adj) strong *fétg* /feʨ/ (adv) very, much *fiap* (pl fòps) /ˈfiɐp/ (/fɔps/) (m.n) hollow *fiar* (pl fjars) /ˈfiɐr/ (/fjars/) (m.n) iron. *fá ò cul fiar* iron *fícé* /ˈfiːʦe/ (m.n) vice, number two *figura* /fiˈɡuːrɐ/ (f.n) figure *fil* /fil/ (m.n) 1. thread 2. jet *filá* /fiˈlaː/ (tr/itr.v) spin *fildiròm* /fildiˈrɔm/ (m.n) wire *filistùca* /filiˈʃtʊkɐ/ (f.n) prank *fimá* (féma) /fimˈaː/ (/ˈfeːmɐ/) (tr/itr.v) smoke *fimantá* (fimjanta) /fimɐnˈtaː/ (/fimˈjantɐ/) (tr.v) smoke *finadín, finadina* /finɐˈdin, -ɐ/ (pron) everyone *finala* /fiˈnaːlɐ/ (f.n) end. *la finala* in the end *finí* /fiˈniː/ (tr/itr.v) finish, end *fist* /fiʃt/ (m.n) stick *fjasta* /ˈfjaʃtɐ/ (f.n) party *fjuc* /fjuk/ (m.n) fire *flagí* (pl flagjal(t)s) /flɐˈʥiː/ (/flɐˈʥal(t)s/) (m.n) flail *flajvlèza* /flajvˈlɛʦɐ/ (f.n) weakness *flòt, -a* /flɔt, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) great, smart, nice 2. (adv) easily *flucs* /fluks/ (pl.m.n) chopped straw *flur* /fluːr/ (f.n) flower *fòl* /fɔl/ (m.n) bellows *fòm* /fɔm/ (f.n) hunger *fòmaz* /fɔˈmaʦ/, in *vaj fòmaz* be ravenous *fòntauna* /fɔnˈtawnɐ/ (f.n) source *fòpa* /ˈfɔpɐ/ (f.n) big hollow *fòrèstal* /fɔrɛʃˈtaːl/ (m.n) forest ranger *fòrèstalèssar* /fɔrɛʃtaːlˈɛsɐr/ (m.n) forestry

### 9 Tuatschin-English word list

*fòrmazjun* /fɔrmɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) lineup *fòrsa, fòrza* /ˈfɔrsɐ, ˈfɔrʦɐ/ (f.n) power, strength<sup>2</sup> *fòrza, fòrsa* /ˈfɔrʦɐ, ˈfɔrsɐ/ (adv) maybe *fòtògrafia* /fɔtɔgrɐˈfiɐ/ (f.n) photograph *frá* /fraː/ (m.n) brother *frajd, -a* /frajd, -ɐ/ (adj) cold *frang, franc* /fraŋ, fraŋk/ (m.n) franc (monetary unit) *fraquantá, fraquantá ò* /frɐkwɐnˈtaː, frɐkwɐnˈtaː ɔː/ (tr.v) visit *fravi* /ˈfraːvi/ (m.n) smith *frèstg, -a* /frɛʃʨ, -ɐ/ (adj) fresh *frida* /ˈfriːdɐ/ (f.n) blow *frina* /ˈfriːnɐ/ (f.n) flour *fuájna* /fuˈajnɐ/ (f.n) fireplace *fufargnè* (fufrògna) /fufɐrˈɲɛː/ (/fufˈrɔɲɐ/) (itr.v) rummage *fugí* /fuʥiː/ (irr.itr.v) flee *fulanau, -ada* /fulɐˈnaw, -ˈaːdɐ/ (adj) crowded *fumatgèsa, fumitgèsa* /fumɐˈʨɛːzɐ, fumiˈʨɛːzɐ / (f.n) maid *fumègl* /fuˈmɛʎ/ (m.n) farmhand *func* /funk/ (m.n) radio *fùn* /fʊn/ (m.n) pound *funcsaná* /funksɐnaː/ (itr.v) function *fundamajn* /fundɐˈmajn/ (m.n) foundation *fùns* /fʊns/ (m.n) 1.ground. *ir' a fùns* drown 2.fields *furá* (fùra) /furaː/ (/fʊːrɐ/) (tr.v) pierce *furclèta* /furkˈlɛtɐ/ (f.n) notch *furṣchá* (fruṣcha) /furˈʒaː/ (/ˈfruːʒɐ/) (tr.v) rub

# **G**

```
gaglina /ɡɐˈʎinɐ/ (f.n) hen
galòpá /ɡɐlɔˈpaː/ (itr.v) gallop
gamba → ajn gamba
gang /ɡaŋɡ/ (m.n) corridor
ganùglja /ɡɐˈnʊʎɐ/ (f.n) knee
gártar /ˈɡartɐr/ (m.n) grating
gartagjè (gartègja) /ɡɐrtɐˈʥɛː/ (/ɡɐrˈtɛːʥɐ/) (itr.v) succeed
```
<sup>2</sup>There is a certain confusion between *fòrsa* and *fòrza*. In my opinion, *fòrza* is the original Tuatschin word for 'maybe', and *fòrsa* for 'strength'. In Standard Sursilvan, it is the opposite.

*gassagljè* (gassèglja) /ɡɐsɐˈʎɛː/ (/ɡɐˈsɛːʎɐ/) (tr.v) flagellate *gè* /ʥɛ/ (adv) 1. yes 2. in fact *gégja* /ˈʥeːʥɐ/ (f.n) violin *géjvja* /ˈʥejvjɐ/ (f.n) Thursday *général* → *ajn général ghén* /ɡen/ (m.n) gene *ghítar* /ˈɡitɐr/ (m.n) grid *gidá* /ʥiˈdaː/ (tr.v) help *gidòntar* /ʥiˈdɔntɐr/ (m.n) assistant, helper *gisjat* /ʥiˈsjat/ (num) seventeen *gizá* (géza) /ʥiˈʦaː/ (/ˈʥeːʦɐ/) (tr.v) sharpen *gjadju* /ʥɐˈdju/ (m.n) Jew *gjajna* /ˈʥajnɐ/ (f.n) 1. gate 2. hay rack of only two posts *gjalá* /ʥɐˈlaː/ (tr/itr.v) freeze *gjaniˈturṣ* /ʥɐniˈturz/ (pl.m.n) parents *gjassa* /ˈʥasɐ/ (f.n) narrow path *gjat* /ʥat/ (m.n) cat *gjával* /ˈʥavɐl/ (m.n) devil *gjantá* /ʥɐnˈtaː/ 1. (itr.v) have lunch 2. (m.n) lunch *gjù* /ʥʊ/ (adv) down *gjùdajn* /ʥʊˈdajn/ (adv) down in(to), at the bottom *gjùdòra, gjùadòra* /ˌʥʊ(ɐ)ˈdɔːrɐ/ (adv) down out, in direction down the valley *gjuc* /ʥuk/ (m.n) game *gjuf* /ʥuf/ (m.n) yoke *gjùta* /ˈʥʊtɐ/ (f.n) pearl barley *gjuvan, gjufna* /ˈʥuːvɐn, ˈʥufnɐ/ (adj/n) young, young people *gjuvanòtar* /ʥuvɐˈnɔtɐr/ (m.n) youngster *gjuvantétgna* /ʥuvɐnˈteʨnɐ/ (f.n) youth *gjùsùt* /ʥʊˈzʊt/ (adv) down and under *gl* /ʎ/ (m.def.art before vowel) the *glaṣ* /ɡlaːz/ (m.n) glass *glatsch* /ɡlaʧ/ (m.n) ice *gljèdṣ, gljèz* /ʎɛʣ, ʎɛʦ/ (unm.dem.pron) this, that *gljèndiṣdiṣ* /ˌʎɛndiʒˈdiːz/ (m.n) Monday *gljèz* → *gljèdṣ gljud* /ʎuːd/ (f.n) people *gljunsch* /ʎunʃ/ (adv) far, far away *gnanc, gnang* /ɲaŋk, ɲaŋɡ/ (adv) not even

*gnarva* /ˈɲarvɐ/ (f.n) nerve *grad* /ɡrad/ (adv) just, exactly, immediately *gramática* /ɡrɐˈmatikɐ/ (f.n) grammar *grascha* /ˈɡraʃɐ/ (f.n) dung, fertiliser. *métar grascha* dung *graun* /ɡrawn/ (m.n) cereal, corn *gréjv, -a* /ɡrejv, -ɐ/ (adj) 1. heavy 2. difficult *grép* /ɡrep/ (m.n) rock *grépa* /ˈɡrepɐ/ (coll.f.n) rocks *grí* (grèscha, grin, impf gréva) /ɡriː/ (/ˈɡrɛʃɐ, ɡriːn,ˈɡreːvɐ/) (itr.v) shout *griaṣ, gròṣ gròssa* /ˈɡriɐz, ɡrɔz, ˈɡrɔsɐ/ (adj) fat *griaṣ* /ˈɡriɐz/ (m.n) drone (insect) *griṣchún, -a* /ɡriˈʒun, -ɐ/ (adj) from the Grisons *gròma* /ˈɡrɔmɐ/ (f.n) cream *gròn, -da* /ɡrɔn, -dɐ/ (adj) big, old *gròndè̱zja* /ɡrɔnˈdɛzjɐ/ (f.n) size *gròndjuṣ, -a* /ɡrɔndˈjuːz, -ɐ/ (adj) great *gròṣ, gròssa* → *griaṣ guardja* /ˈɡwardjɐ/ (f.n) guard *gudaj* /ɡuˈdaj/ (irr.tr.v) enjoy *gudignè* (gudògna) /ɡudiˈɲɛː/ (/ɡuˈdɔɲɐ/) (tr.v) earn *guíṣ* /ɡuˈiz/ (f.n) rifle

# **H**

*habitazjun* /hɐbitɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) appartment, flat *hald* /hald/ (adv) simply, just *hanlégj, hanlétg* /hɐnˈleʥ, hanˈleʨ/ (m.n) business *hèfti, -a* /ˈhɛfti, -ɐ/ (adj) hard, strenuous, violent *hèrzig, -a* /ˈhɛrʦiɡ, -ɐ/ (adj) cute *històrja, istòrja* /(h)iʃˈtɔrja/ (f.n) story *hòsp* /hɔʃp/ (m.n) guest *hòspíz* /hɔʃˈpiːʦ/ (m.n) hospice *hòta* /ˈhɔtɐ/ (m.n) rein *hòtè̱l* /hɔˈtɛl/ (m.n) hotel *humòrístic, -a* /humɔˈriʃtik, -ɐ/ (adj) funny

# **I**

*i* /i/ 1. (pers.pron.3pl) they 2. (expl.pron) there *í* → *ira iart* (pl òrts) /ˈiɐrt/ (/ɔrts/) (m.n) garden *iaṣ* (pl òṣ) /iɐz/ (/ɔz/) (m.n) bone *iastar, jastarṣ, jastra* /ˈiɐʃtɐr, ˈjaʃtɐrz, ˈjaʃtrɐ/ (adj) 1. foreign 2. strange *idé(j)a* /iˈde(j)ɐ/ (f.n) idea *impau, in pau* /imˈpaw, in paw/ (quant) a bit *imprasjun* /imprɐsˈjun/ (f.n) impression *in, -a* /iːn, ˈiːnɐ/ (num/indef.art.sg) one, a *in pau* → *impau incassá* /inkɐˈsaː/ (tr/itr.v) collect (money) *indigèn, -a* /indiˈʥɛːn, -ɐ/ (adj/n) local, indigenous *indiṣch* /ˈindiʒ/ (num) eleven *inqual, -a* /inˈkwal, -ɐ/ (indef.det) some *inṣ* /inz/ (gnr.pron) one, we, you *instruczjun* /inʃtrukˈʦjun/ (f.n) teaching *instruí* /inʃtruˈiː/ (tr/itr.v) teach *instrumajnt* /inʃtruˈmajnt/ (m.n) instrument *insùma* /inˈsʊmɐ/ (adv) anyway. *insùma bétg* not at all *intanzjunau, -ada* /intɐnʦjuˈnaw, -aːdɐ/ (adj) benevolent *intarassant, -a* /intɐrɐˈsant, -ɐ/ (adj) interesting *intènt* /inˈtɛnt/ (m.n) plan *intèrn, -a* /inˈtɛrn, -ɐ/ (adj) domestic *intgarnauṣ, -ada* /inʨarˈnaws, -ˈaːdɐ/ (adj) inveterate *ira, ir', í* /ˈiːrɐ/ (itr.v) go. *í par* look for *iral* /iˈraːl/ (m.n) threshing floor *isá* /iˈzaː/ (itr.v) run back and forth (cows) *iṣchí* (pl iṣchjal(t)s) /iˈʒiː/ (/iʒˈjal(t)s/) (m.n) maple tree *istòrja* → *històrja*

# **J**

*jamna* /ˈjamnɐ/ (f.n) week *jarva* /ˈjarvɐ/ (f.n) grass *jástars, jastra* → *iastar jèda* /ˈjɛːdɐ/ (f.n) time. *in' jèda* once *jéli* /ˈjeli/ (m.n) oil *ju* /ju/ (pers.pron) I

# **L**

*la, l'* /lɐ/ 1. (def.art.f.sg) the 2. (pers.pron) she *lad, -a* /laːd, -ɐ/ (adj) large, broad *ládar* /ˈlaːdɐr/ (m.n) thief *lag* /laːɡ/ (m.n) lake *lagagè* (laghègja) /lɐɡɐˈʥɛː/ (/lɐˈɡɛːʥɐ/) (tr/itr.v) lurk, lie in wait *laguétar* (lagutín) /lɐˈɡwetɐr/ (/lɐɡuˈtiːn/) (tr.v) swallow *lahargnè* (lahrògna) /lɐhɐrˈɲɛː/ (/lɐhˈrɔɲɐ/) (itr.v) giggle *lárisch* /ˈlaːriʃ/ (m.n) larch *lartg, largja* /larʨ, ˈlardjɐ/ (adj) 1. wide 2. free *lata* /ˈlatɐ/ (f.n) slat *latjarna* /lɐˈtjarnɐ/ (f.n) lantern *lavá* (léjva) /lɐˈvaː/ (/ˈlejvɐ/) (itr.v) get up *lavá* (lava) /lɐˈvaː/ (/ˈlavɐ/) (tr.v) wash. *lavá gjù* do the dishes *lavaghè* (lavaja, lavagajn) /lɐvɐˈɡɛː/ (/lɐˈvajɐ, lɐvɐˈɡajn/) (tr.v) damage *lavina* /lɐˈviːnɐ/ (f.n) avalanche *lavinèra* /laviˈnɛrɐ/ (f.n) avalanche barrier *lavur* /lɐˈvuːr/ (f.n) work *lèdi, -dja*<sup>3</sup> /lɛːdi, -djɐ/ (adj) bachelor, not married *lèdṣ/lèz, lèza* /lɛʣ/lɛʦ, lɛʦɐ/ (dem.pron) this *légj, létg* /leːʥ, leːʨ/ (m.n) bed *légjar* (lagín) /ˈleʥɐr/ (/lɐˈʥiːn/) (tr/itr.v) read *léjv, -a* /lejv, -ɐ/ (adj) light *léjgar, -gra* /ˈlejɡɐr, -ɡrɐ/ (adj) funny *lèn* /lɛn/ (m.n) wood, firewood *lèna* /ˈlɛnɐ/ (coll.f.n) wood, firewood. *fá lèna* fell trees *létg* → *légj lètg* /lɛːʨ/ (f.n) marriage, matrimony *lèz* → *lèdṣ líbar, -bra* /ˈlibɐr, -brɐ/ (adj) free *lingja* /ˈlinʥɐ/ (f.n) line *li* /li/ dative marker (obsolescent) *li, lis* /li, lis/ definite dative article (obsolescent) *ljòngja* /ˈʎɔnʥɐ/ (f.n) sausage *ljuc* (pl lòganṣ) /ljuk/ (/ˈlɔːɡanz/) (m.n) place *ljung, -a* /ljuŋ, ˈljuŋgɐ/ (adj) long

<sup>3</sup> For the masculine, the form *lèdic* is also used.

*lò* /lɔ/ (adv) there *lòcál* /lɔˈkaːl/ (m.n) place *lòcalitat* /lɔkɐliˈtaːt/ (f.n) place *lòntscha* /ˈlɔnʧɐ/ (f.n) lance *lu* → *lura luá* (líua) /luˈaː/ (/ˈliwɐ/) (itr.v) melt *luajn* /ˈlwajn/ (adv) out there (in direction up the valley) *luantá* /luɐnˈtaː/ (tr.v) melt *lubiantscha* /luˈbiɐnʧɐ/ (f.n) permission *ludá* (lauda) /luˈdaː/ (/ˈlawdɐ/) (tr.v) praise *luf* /luf/ (m.n) wolf *lump* /lump/ (m.n) rascal *lumparia* /lumpɐˈriɐ/ (f.n) childish prank *lungatg* /luŋˈgaːʨ/ (m.n) language *lungatg-mùma* /luŋˈgaːʨ-ˈmʊma/ (m.n) mother tongue *lunguruṣ, -ɐ* /luŋguˈruːz, -ɐ/ (adj) boring *luòra* /ˈlwɔrɐ/ (adv) out there (in direction down the valley) *lura, lu* /ˈluːrɐ, lu/ (adv) then *lùṣch, -a* /lʊʒ, -ɐ/ (adj) proud *luṣchèzja* /luˈʒɛʦjɐ/ (f.n) pride, proudness *luvrá* (lavura) /luvˈraː/ (/lɐˈvuːrɐ/) (itr.v) work *luvrè* /luvˈrɛː/ (m.n) worker

# **M**

*má tga* /maː ʨɐ/ (comp) since *macòrta, macòrts* → *matgiart macrún* /mɐˈkrun/ (m.n) macaroni *madèm, -a* /mɐˈdɛm, -ɐ/ (adj) same *madirá* /mɐdiˈraː/ (itr.v) ripen *magari* /mɐˈɡaːri/ (adv) sometimes *magljaṣ* /ˈmaʎɐz/ (pl.f.n) provisions *magljè* /mɐˈʎɛː/ (tr/itr.v) eat *magnùc* /mɐˈɲʊk/ (m.n) cheese *maj* /maj/ (adv) never *majl* /majl/ (m.n) apple *majla* /ˈmajlɐ/ (coll.f.n) apples *majnadistrict* /ˌmajnadiˈʃtrikt/ (m.n) head of district *majnṣ* /majnz/ (m.n) month

*majṣa* /ˈmajzɐ/ (f.n) table *majṣèṣ* /majˈzɛz/ (m.n) assembly of houses in the Alps *majstar* /ˈmajʃtɐr/ (m.n) joiner *mal, -a* /maːl, -ɐ/ (adj) bad *mal* /maːl/ (adv) badly *malagè* (malègja) /mɐlɐˈʥɛ/ (/mɐˈlɛʥɐ/) (tr/itr.v) paint *malaura* /mɐˈlawrɐ/ (f.n) bad weather *malètg* /mɐˈlɛʨ/ (m.n) picture *malitèr* /mɐliˈtɛr/ (m.n) 1. army, military 2. military service 3. soldier *maljún* /mɐˈʎun/ (num) million *malsagidajval, -vla* /ˌmalsɐʥiˈdajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) ungainly *malsagir* /mɐlsɐˈʥiːr, -ɐ/ (adj) 1. unsafe 2. unsure *maná* (majna) /mɐˈnaː/ (/ˈmajnɐ/) (itr./tr.v) lead *manajval* /mɐˈnajvɐl/ (adv) easily *manèdal, -dla* /maˈnɛːdɐl, -dlɐ/ (adj) fine *manèstra* /mɐˈnɛʃtrɐ/ (f.n) pottage *manizá* (manéza) /mɐniˈʦaː/ (/mɐˈneʦɐ/) (tr.v) chop *manualmajn* /mɐnuˈalmajn/ (adv) manually *mar* /maːr/ (f.n) sea *marcá* /marˈkaː/ (tr.v) mark *mardís* /mɐrˈdiːs/ (m.n) Tuesday *maridá* /mariˈdaː/ (tr/itr.v) marry, get married *marjanda* /mɐrˈjandɐ/ (f.n) meal *mars* /mars/ (m.n) March *marsch, -a* /marʃ, -ɐ/ (adj) 1. rotten 2. lazy *marschadétgna* /mɐrʃɐˈdeʨnɐ/ (f.n) lazyness *marschè* /mɐrˈʃɛː/ (itr.v) march, go on *martéri* /mɐrˈteri/ (m.n) ordeal *martí* (pl martjal(t)s) /mɐrˈtiː/ (/mɐrˈtjal(t)s/) (m.n) hammer *martgadònt* /mɐrtgɐˈdɔnt/ (m.n) merchant *martgau* /mɐrˈʨaw/ (m.n) city *máscal* /ˈmaʃkɐl/ (adj) male *maschina* /mɐˈʃiːnɐ/ (f.n) machine *maṣjamna* /mɐzˈjamnɐ/ (f.n) Wednesday *massa* /ˈmasɐ/ (adv) lots, much *mastral* /mɐʃtˈraːl/ (m.n) senior official *mastarlèssa* /mɐstɐrˈlɛsɐ/ (f.n) senior official's wife *mat* /mat/ (m.n) boy, young man

*mata* /ˈmatɐ/ (f.n) girl, young woman *mataj* /mɐˈtaj/ (adv) probably *matal* (pl matalts) /mɐˈtal/ (/mɐˈtalʦ/) (m.n) metal *matg* /maːʨ/ (m.n) 1. bundle (of flowers) 2. May *matgiart, macòrts, macòrta* /mɐˈʨiɐrt, mɐˈkɔrts, mɐˈkɔrtɐ/ (adj) ugly *maun* /mawn/ (m.n) hand. *vaj zatgéj ajnta maun* be responsible for something *maz* /maʦ/ (m.n) killing *mazá* /mɐˈʦaː/ (tr.v) kill *mazaun, -a* /mɐˈʦawn, -ɐ/ (adj) ill *mé* /meː/ (io.pers.pron) me *mè* /mɛː/ (do.pers.pron) me *mècsgjar* /ˈmɛksʥɐr/ (m.n) butcher *mégljar, -a* /ˈmeʎɐr, -ɐ/ (adj) better *mégljar* /ˈmeʎɐr/ (adv) better. *al mégljar* the best *mégljardétg* /ˌmeʎɐrˈdeʨ/ (adv) more precisely *méjl* /mejl/ (m.n) jam, marmelade. *méjl d'avjuls* honey *méjṣ, mia* /mejz, ˈmiɐ/ (poss.pron.1sg.pred) mine (sg) *méjṣ, miaṣ* /mejz, ˈmiɐz/ (poss.det.1sg) my (pl). *als méjṣ*, *las mias* (poss.pron.1sg.nom) mine (pl) *mél* /meːl/ (m.n) mule *mèlan, -lna* /ˈmɛlɐn, -lnɐ/ (adj) yellow *méli* → *mili mèmi, mèmja* /ˈmɛmi, ˈmɛmjɐ/ (adv) too *mèndar* /ˈmɛndɐr/ (adv) worse *mèssa* /ˈmɛsɐ/ (f.n) mass *métar* (matajn) /ˈmetɐr/ (/mɐˈtajn/) (tr.v) put. *métar avaun* imagine *mè̱tar* /ˈmɛtar/ (m.n) metre *mèz, -a* /mɛʦ, -ɐ/ (adj) myself *mia* → *méjṣ, mju miadi* /ˈmiɐdi/ (m.n) doctor *miadṣ, miaz, mjasa* /ˈmiɐʣ, ˈmiɐʦ, ˈmjazɐ/ (num) half. *mjasa laṣ déjṣch* half past nine *miart, mòrts, mòrta* /ˈmiɐrt, mɔrts, ˈmɔrtɐ/ (adj) dead *miaz* → *miadṣ midá* /miˈdaː/ (v.tr) change. *midá ò* replace, exchange *midada* /miˈdaːdɐ/ (f.n) change *mili, méli* /ˈmili, ˈmeli/ (num) thousand *minéra̱ l, -a* /mineˈraːl, -ɐ/ (adj) mineral

### 9 Tuatschin-English word list

*mintga* /ˈminʨɐ/ (indef.det) every *mintgataun* /minʨaˈtawn/ (adv) sometimes *mintgín, -ina* /minˈʨiːn, -ˈiːnɐ/ (indef.pron) everybody *minuta* /miˈnutɐ/ (f.n) minute *mir* /miːr/ (m.n) 1. wall. *mir da farmada* wall of a reservoir 2. rock face *mirá* /miˈraː/ (tr.v) 1. look. *mirá da* care for. *mirá sén* control 2. *mirá tga* make sure that *misérja* /mizéːrjɐ/ (f.n) problem, trouble *mistrégn* /miʃˈtreɲ/ (m.n) profession *misarabal, -bla* /mizɐˈraːbɐl, -blɐ/ (adj) miserable *misjun* /misˈjun/ (f.n) mission *mitschè* (métscha) /miˈʧɛː/ (/ˈmeːʧɐ/) (itr.v) escape *mjasa* → *miadṣ mjasanòtg* /mjazɐˈnɔʨ/ (f.n) midnight *mjòla* /ˈmjɔːlɐ/ (f.n) cup *mju, mia* /mju, ˈmiɐ/ (poss.det.sg) my. *al mju*, *la mia* (poss.pron.1sg.nom) mine *mòni* /ˈmɔni/ (m.n) handle *mòrdar* (murdín) /ˈmɔrdɐr/ (/murˈdiːn/) (tr.v) bite *mòribund* /mɔriˈbund/ (m.n) dying people *mòrt* /mɔrt/ (f.n) death *mòrta, mòrts* → *miart mòtif* /mɔˈtiːf/ (m.n) reason *mù* /mʊ/ 1. (adv) only 2. (conj) but *muantá* /muɐnˈtaː/ (tr.v) move *mucs*, in *fá bigja mucs* not move at all, make no sound at all *mudargè* (mudrègja) /mudɐrˈʥɛː/ (/mudˈrɛːʥɐ/) (tr.v) torment *mujèra* /muˈjɛrɐ/ (f.n) cow without calves *mulá* (mòla) /muˈlaː/ (/ˈmɔːlɐ/) (tr.v ) grind *mulissiar* /muliˈsiɐr/ (m.n) negotiator *mùma* /ˈmʊmɐ/ (f.n) mother *mùn* /mʊn/ (m.n) world *munajda* /muˈnajdɐ/ (f.n) coin *mùngjar* (ptcp mùgnṣch) /ˈmʊnʥɐr/ (/mʊɲʒ/) (tr/itr.v) milk *munglá* (maungla) /mungˈlaː/ (/mawnːglɐ/) (itr.v) should *mumèn* /muˈmɛn/ (m.n) moment *munièssa* /muniˈɛsɐ/ (f.n) nun *munizjun* /muniˈʦjun/ (f.m) munition *murí* (mùra) /muˈriː/ (/ˈmʊːrɐ/) (itr.v) die

*muséum* /muˈzeum/ (m.n) museum *música* /ˈmuzikɐ/ (f.n) music *musicant* /muziˈkant/ (m.n) musician *mussá* (mùssa) /muˈsaː/ (/ˈmʊsɐ/) (tr.v) show *mùssavia* /ˌmʊsɐˈviːɐ/ (f.n) signpost *mùtg* /mʊʨ/ (m.n) two-year-old calf *múval* /ˈmuvɐl/ (m.n) cattle

# **N**

*na* /naː/ (adv) no *Nadal* /nɐˈdaːl/ (m.n) Christmas. *Nadal-nòtg* Christmas Eve *nagá* (nèga) /nɐˈɡaː/ (/ˈnɛːɡɐ/) (itr.v) drown *nagantá* (nag-janta) /nɐgɐnˈtaː/ (/nɐgˈjantɐ/) (tr.v) drown *nagín, nagina* /nɐˈʥin, -ɐ/ (indef.pron) no *nagljú* /nɐˈʎuː/ (adv) nowhere *najr, -a* /najr, -ɐ/ (adj) black *najv* /najv/ (f.n) snow. *métar najv* remove snow *nara* /ˈnaːrɐ/ (coll.f.n) mad people *nataléci* /nɐtɐˈleʦi/ (m.n) birthday *nátèl* /ˈnatɛl/ (m.n) smartphone *natira* /nɐˈtirɐ/ (f.n) nature *natural, -a* /nɐturˈaːl, -ɐ/ (adj) natural *naturálmajn* /nɐtuˈralmajn/ (adv) naturally *nausch, -a* /nawʃ, -a/ (adj) bad *navada* /nɐˈvaːdɐ/ (f.n) snowfall *navé* /nɐˈve/ (disc) right? *navèn* /nɐˈvɛn/ 1. (adv) away 2. (prep) *navèn da* away from *navònta* /nɐˈvɔntɐ/ (num) ninety *né* /ne/ (conj) or. *né … né* neither … nor *néjfs* /nejfs/ (m.n) nephew *nègla* /ˈnɛːɡlɐ/ (f.n) carnation *néjv, nùvṣ, nùva* /nejv, nʊːvz, ˈnʊːvɐ/ (adj) new. *da néjv* again *néschar* (néscha, naschín, naschéva) /ˈneʃɐr/ (/ˈneʃɐ, nɐˈʃiːn, nɐˈʃeːvɐ/) (itr.v) be born *névé̱tg* /neˈveʨ/ (disc) right? *niabal, nòbalṣ, nòbla* /ˈniɐbɐl, ˈnɔːbɐlz, ˈnɔːblɐ/ (adj) noble *niaṣ, nòssa* /niɐz, nɔsɐ/ (poss.det.1pl) our (sg). *al niaṣ*, *la nòssa* (poss.pron.1pl) ours (sg)

```
nibla /ˈniːblɐ/ (f.n) cloud
njaza /ˈnjaʦɐ/ (f.n) niece
nògj, nòtg /nɔʥ, nɔʨ/ (f.n) night
nònavaun /ˌnɔnɐˈvawn/ (adv) awake. vagní nònavaun 1. recover 2. wake up
nòrd /nɔrd/ (m.n) north
nòṣ, nòssa /nɔz, ˈnɔsɐ/ (poss.pron.pred) ours (sg)
nòṣ, nòssaṣ /nɔz, nɔsɐz/ (poss.det) our (pl)
nòssa → niaṣ
nòtg → nògj
nòtizja /nɔˈtiʦjɐ/ (n.f) news
nòvè̱mbar /nɔˈvɛmbɐr/ (m.n) November
nù, nùca (tga) /nʊ, ˈnʊkɐ (ʨɐ)/ 1. (rel.pron) where 2. (prep) by
nùa /ˈnʊɐ/ (interr.pron) where
nùda /ˈnɔdɐ/ (f.n) brand
nuégl /nuˈeʎ/ (m.n) barn
nuét /nwet/ (indef.pron) nothing
nuéta /ˈnwetɐ/ (neg) no
nuf /nuːf/ (m.n) knot
nuídis /nuˈiːdis/ (adv) reluctantly
nula /ˈnulɐ/ (num) zero
nùm /nʊm/ (m.n) name. vaj nùm be called
nùndétg, -a /ˌnʊnˈdeʨ, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) indescribable 2. (adv) incredibly
nùnpussajval, -vlɐ /ˌnʊnpuˈsajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) impossible
nùrsa /ˈnʊrsɐ/ (f.n) sheep
nuṣ /nuːz/ (pers.pron) we, us
nùv /nʊv/ (num) nine
```
# **O**

*ò, òra* /ɔː, ˈɔːrɐ/ 1. (adv) out 2. (prep) in direction down the valley *òbligazjun* /ɔbligɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) obligation *òctò̱bar* /ɔkˈtɔːbɐr/ (m.n) October *òdavaun* /ˌɔːdɐˈvawn/ (adv) in advance *òdaviart* /ˌɔːdaˈviart/ (adv) outside *òdém* /ˌɔːˈdeːm/ (prep) at the lowest part of the valley *òficiar* /ɔfiˈʦiɐr/ (m.n) officer *ògj, òtg* /ɔʥ, ɔʨ/ (num) eight *ògn* /ɔɲ/ (m.n) alder *ògna* /ˈɔɲɐ/ (coll.f.n) alders

*òlma* /ˈɔlmɐ/ (f.n) soul *òmaṣduṣ* → *dòmaṣduṣ òn* /ɔn/ (m.n) year *òn* /ɔn/ (adv) this year *ònda* /ˈɔndɐ/ (f.n) aunt *ònur* /ɔˈnuːr/ (f.n) honour *òra* → *ò òragjùsùt* /ˌɔːrɐʥʊˈzʊt/ (prep) underneath in direction down the valley *òrasé* /ˌɔːrɐˈse/ (adv) up, down the valley and up *òravauntùt* /ˌɔrɐvawnˈtʊt/ (adv) above all *òrazjun* /ɔrɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) prayer *òrd* /ɔrd/ (prep) out of *òrdavaun* /ɔrdɐˈvawn/ (adv) in advance, in front *òrdinari, -a* /ɔrdiˈnaːri, -ɐ/ (adj) usual. *par ordinari* usually *òrdlùndar* /ɔrdˈlʊndɐr/ (adv) out of it *òrdònanz* /ɔrdɔˈnanʦ/ (m.n) orderly *òrganisá* (òrganisèscha) /ɔrɡɐniˈzaː/ (/ɔrɡɐniˈzɛʃɐ/) (tr.v) organise *òrgla* /ˈɔrɡlɐ/ (f.n) organ *òrjèntazjun* /ɔrjɛntaˈʦjun/ (f.n) orientation, sense of orientation *òrtṣ* → *iart òtg* → *ògj òtgònta* /ɔˈʨɔntɐ/ (num) eighty *òvra* /ˈɔvrɐ/ (f.n) work *òz* /ɔʦ/ (adv) today *òzaldé* /ˌɔʦɐlˈdeː/ (adv) nowadays

# **P**

*pádar* /ˈpaːdɐr/ (m.n) Father *padèl* /pɐˈdɛl/ (m.n) caretaker *pagljè* (pèglja, pagljajn) /pɐˈʎɛː/ (/ˈpɛːʎɐ, pɐˈʎajn/) (tr.v) hit *paj* /paj/ (m.n) foot *pajr* /pajr/ (m.n) pear *pajra* /ˈpajrɐ/ (coll.f.n) pears *pal* /paːl/ (m.n) post *palé* /paˈle/ (m.n) post *paliat* (pl paljats) /pɐˈliɐt/ (/pɐˈljats/) (m.n) arrow *panaglja* /pɐˈnaːʎɐ/ (f.n) butter barrel, butter tub *panṣjuná* /panzjuˈnaː/ (tr.v) pension off

*par, pr* /pɐr, pr/ 1. ( ̩ prep) for 2. (comp) in order to *pará* /pɐˈraː/ (itr.v) seem *parada* /pɐˈraːdɐ/ (f.n) parade *paraj* /pɐˈraj/ (itr.v) seem *parcadi* /pɐrˈkaːdi/ (m.n) parking space *pardagè* (pardégja) /pɐrdɐˈʥɛː/ (/pɐrˈdeʥɐ/) (itr.v) preach *pardèrt, -a* /pɐrˈdɛrt, -ɐ/ (adj) clever *parmavèra, pr̩mavèra* /pɐrmɐˈvɛrɐ, prmɐˈvɛrɐ/ ( ̩ f.n) spring *parquaj, pr̩quaj tga* /pɐrˈkwaj, prˈkwaj ʨɐ/ ( ̩ comp) because *parschuadjuṣ, -dida* /pɐrʃwaˈdjuz, -ˈdiːdɐ/ (ptcp/adj) convinced *parsjantar* /pɐrˈsjantɐr/ (adv) therefore, for it *parsul, pr̩sul, -a* /pɐrˈsuːl, prˈsuːl, -ɐ/ ( ̩ adj) alone *parsuna* /pɐrˈsuːnɐ/ (f.n) person *part* /part/ (f.n) part. *par part* partially *partí ajn* /pɐrˈtiː ajn/ (tr.v) divide *partgé(j)* /pɐrˈʨe(j)/ (comp) because *partgirá* /pɐrʨiˈraː/ (tr.v) mind (animals) *parvaj* /pɐrˈvaj/ (irr.tr.v) feed *parvasèdar, pr̩vasèdar* /pɐrvɐˈzɛːdɐr, prvɐˈzɛːdɐr/ ( ̩ m.n) herdsman *parví da* /pɐrˈvi dɐ/ (prep) because of *pas* /pas/ (m.n) 1. step 2. pass *pasanca* /pɐˈzankɐ/ 1. (f.n) heavy load 2. (elat) very heavy *pascá* /pɐʃˈkaː/ (tr/itr.v) fish *pástar* /ˈpaʃtɐr/ (m.n) shepherd. *pástar gròn* main shepherd. *pástar pin* second shepherd *pastgè* /pɐʃˈʨɛː/ (itr.v) graze *pastira* /pɐʃˈtiːrɐ/ (f.n) pastureland *pastur* /pɐʃˈtuːr/ (m.n) herdsman *patarlá* /pɐtɐrˈlaː/ (itr.v) chatter *patarˈniaṣ* /pɐtɐrˈniɐṣ/ (m.n) Lord's prayer *patarnòṣ* /pɐtɐrˈnɔz/ (m.n) Lord's prayer *patartgè* (patratga) /pɐtɐrˈʨɛː/ (/pɐˈtraːʨɐ/) (itr.v) think, reflect *patgè* (pétga, patgajn) /paˈʨɛː/ (/ˈpeːʨɐ, pɐtgˈajn/) (tr.v) hit, beat, knock *patschíficamajn* /pɐˈʧiːfikamajn/ (adv) peacefully *patrún-basèlgja* /pɐˈtrun-bɐzɛlˈʥɐ/ (m.n) Church Patron *pau* → *impau pauc, -a* /pawk, -ɐ/ (quant.det/adv) little *paun* /pawn/ (m.n) bread

*paupar, -pra* /ˈpawpɐr, -prɐ/ (adj) poor *paupradat* /pawprɐˈdaːt/ (f.n) poverty *pausa* /ˈpawzɐ/ (f.n) pause *pával* /ˈpavɐl/ (m.n) food (for animals) *pazjènt, -a* /pɐˈʦjɛnt, -ɐ/ (adj) patient *pégn* /peɲ/ (m.n) spruce, fir tree *pègn* /pɛɲ/ (m.n) pledge *pégna* /ˈpeɲɐ/ (f.n) oven *péjda* /ˈpejdɐ/ (f.n) time, leisure *pèlègrina̱di* /pɛlɛgriˈnaːdi/ (m.n) pilgrimage *pèn* /pɛn/ (m.n) buttermilk *pènṣjònau, -ada* /pɛnzjɔˈnaw, -ˈaːdɐ/ (ptcp/adj) retired *pènṣum* /ˈpɛnzum/ (m.n) homework *pér* /peːr/ (adv) only *pèr* /pɛːr/ (m.n) pair. *in pèr* a couple of *pèra* /pɛːrɐ/ (coll.f.n) pairs (with paired terms like *traja pèra cazès* three pairs of shoes) *péta* /ˈpetɐ/ (f.n) cake *pétg* /peʨ/ (m.n) prick, hoe *pétga* /ˈpeʨɐ/ (f.n) post *pèz* /pɛʦ/ (m.n) chest *pi* /pi/ (conj) and then *pia* /ˈpiɐ/ (adv) thus, therefore *piaglja* /piˈaʎɐ/ (f.n) salary *piartg, pòrṣ* /ˈpiɐrʨ, pɔrṣ/ (m.n) pig *piè* (paja) /piˈɛː/ (/ˈpajɐ/) (tr/itr.v) pay *pin, pinṣ, pintga* /pin, pinz, ˈpinʨɐ/ (adj) small *piná* (pajna) /piˈnaː/ (/ˈpajnɐ/) (tr.v) 1. prepare. *èssar pinauṣ* be ready 2. fell (wood), log *pintga* → *pin pista* /ˈpiʃtɐ/ (f.n) slope *pistraca* /piʃˈtrakɐ/ (f.n) mixture (food) *pitgògna* /piˈʨɔɲɐ/ (f.n) steep slope *piún* /piˈun/ (m.n) lard *pjal* /pjaːl/ (f.n) skin *pjardar* (pardín) (ptcp pjars) /pjardɐr/ (/pɐrˈdiːn, pjars/) (tr.v) lose *pjandar* (pandín) /ˈpjandɐr/ (/panˈdiːn/) (tr/itr.v) hang *placat* /plɐˈkaːt/ (m.n) poster, signboard

*pladí* (plajda, plidajn) /plaˈdiː/ (/ˈplajda, pliˈdajn/) (tr.v) employ *plaja* /ˈplajɐ/ (f.n) wound *plajd* /plajd/ (m.n) word *plajn, -a* /plajn, -ɐ/ (adj) full *plajv* /plajv/ (f.n) parish *plantschju* /planˈʧju/ (m.n) floor *plaṣchaj* /plɐˈʒaj/ 1. (m.n) pleasure 2. (itr.v) please *plat* /plat/ (m.n) flat ground *plat, -a* /plat, -ɐ/ (adj) flat *plata* /ˈplatɐ/ (f.n) slab *plaunca* /ˈplawnkɐ/ (f.n) slope *plavòn* /plɐˈvɔn/ (m.n) parish priest *plauna* /ˈplawnɐ/ (f.n) chasuble *plaunsjú* /plaunˈsju/ (adv) slowly *plaz* /plaʦ/ (m.n) place *plaza* /ˈplaʦɐ/ (f.n) job *plé* /pleː/ (adv) more. *bétga … plé* not any more. *plé passau, -ada* older (of people) *plèc* /plɛk/ (m.n) flat bell *pléjdar* /ˈplejdɐr/ (m.n) block *plénangjù* /ˌplenɐnˈʥʊː/ (adv) more downhill *plénansé* /ˌplenɐnˈse/ (adv) more uphill *pléndanajn* /ˌplendɐˈnajn/ (adv) more up the valley *pléndanòra* /ˌplendɐˈnɔrɐ/ (adv) more down the valley *pléndanòragjù* /ˌplendɐnɔrɐˈʥʊ/ (adv) down (more down the valley) *plétòst* /pleˈtɔʃt/ (adv) rather *plirá* /pliˈraː/ (itr.v) moan, complain *plùvar* (impf pluéva) /ˈplʊːvɐr/ (/pluˈeːvɐ/) (itr.v) rain *pòlicia* /pɔliˈʦiɐ/ (f.n) police *pòlisch* /ˈpɔliʃ/ (m.n) thumb *pòndará* (pòndarèscha) /pɔndɐˈraː/ (/pɔndɐˈrɛʃɐ/) (itr.v) think *pòp* /pɔp/ (m.n) baby *pòrṣ* → *piartg pòrṣchar* (purṣchín) /ˈpɔrʒɐr/ (/purˈʒiːn/) (tr.v) offer *pòrta* /ˈpɔrtɐ/ (f.n) door *pòrta-clavau* /ˈpɔrtɐ-klɐˈvaw/ (f.n) barn door *pòrtga* /ˈpɔrʨɐ/ (f.n) dirty girl *pòst* /pɔʃt/ (m.n) guard

*pr̩* → *par, prè práctisch* /ˈpraktiʃ/ (adv) practically, virtually *prajt* /prajt/ (f.n) wall. *prajt-crap* rock face *prapará, prapará tiar* /prɐpɐˈraː ˈtiar/ (tr.v) prepare *pratjandar* (pratandín) /prɐˈtjandɐr/ (/prɐtɐnˈdin/) (tr.v) pretend *prau* /praw/ (m.n) meadow *praula* /ˈprawlɐ/ (f.n) fairy tale *préci* /ˈpreʦi/ (m.n) price *préfatschènta* /ˌprefɐˈʧɛntɐ/ (f.n) intermediate trade *préjr* /prejr/ (m.n) priest *prénci* /ˈprenʦi/ (m.n) prince *prèndar* /ˈprɛndɐr/ (irr.tr.v) take. *prèndar ajn* adopt, accept. *prèndar anavùs* take back. *prèndar anzjaman* assemble. *prèndar avaun* plan *prèsè̱n* → *vaj prèsèn prèsidè̱n, pr̩sidè̱n* /prɛziˈdɛn, prziˈdɛn/ ( ̩ m.n) president *prígal* /ˈpriːɡɐl/ (m.n) danger *priguluṣ, -a* /priguˈluːz, -ɐ/ (adj) dangerous *princèssa* /prinˈʦɛsɐ/ (f.n) princess *privá* /priˈvaː/ (tr.v) deprive *privat, -a* /priˈvaːt, -ɐ/ (adj) private *pròblè̱m* /prɔbˈlɛm/ (m.n) problem *pròcè̱nt* /prɔˈʦɛnt/ (m.n) percent *pròpi* /ˈprɔpi/ (adv) exactly, really *pròvè̱rbi* /prɔˈvɛrbi/ (m.n) proverb *pròxim, -a* /ˈprɔksim, -ɐ/ (adj) next *pudaj* /puˈdaj/ (irr.v) can, be able *pugn* /puːɲ/ (m.n) fist *pulit, -a* /puˈlit, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) well behaved 2. capable 3. (adv) very, quite *pùn* /pʊn/ (f.n) bridge *pùntga* /ˈpʊnʨɐ/ (f.n) chisel *pupí* /puˈpiː/ (m.n) paper *pupira* /puˈpiːrɐ/ 1. (f.n) poverty 2. (elat) very poor *pur* /puːr/ (m.n) farmer. *fá al pur* work as a farmer *puráncal* /puˈrankɐl/ (m.n) small farmer *purèssar* /ˌpuːrˈɛsɐr/ (m.n) 1. agriculture, farming 2. farm 3. farming sector *purèt* /puˈrɛt/ (m.n) small farmer *purschí* (pl purschal(t)s) /purˈʃiː/ (/purˈʃal(t)s/) (m.n) piglet *purṣchida* /purˈʒiːdɐ/ (f.n) offer

### 9 Tuatschin-English word list

*purṣèpan* /purˈzɛpɐn/ (m.n) manger *purtá* (pòrta) /purˈtaː/ (/ˈpɔrtɐ/) (tr.v) 1. bring 2. carry *purtgè* /purˈʨɛː/ (m.n) swineherd *puscha* /ˈpuːʃɐ/ (f.n) cow (familiar speech) *puschégn* /puˈʃeɲ/ (m.n) snack *pusmaun* /ˈpuʃmawn/ (adv) the day after tomorrow *puspè* /puʃˈpɛ/ (adv) again *pussajval, -vla* /puˈsajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) possible *pussajvladat* /pusajvlaˈdaːt/ (f.n) possibility *pussònza* /puˈsɔnʦɐ/ (f.n) power *pustrètsch* /puʃˈtrɛʨ/ (m.n) herdsman's money *pùts* /pʊʦ/ (m.n) pond

# **Q**

*quaj* /kwaj/ 1. (unm.dem.pron) this, that 2. (dem.det.m.sg) this *quajda* /ˈkwajdɐ/ (f.n) desire *quajnasé* /ˌkwajnɐˈse/ (adv) up there *quántum* /ˈkwantum/ (m.n) amount *quart* /kwart/ (num) quarter *quart, -a* /kwart, -ɐ/ (ord.num) fourth *quasi* /ˈkwazi/ (adv) almost *quátar* /ˈkwatɐr/ (num) four *quèl,-a* /kwɛl,-ɐ/ (dem.pron) this (one), that (one) *quèluísa* /ˌkwɛlˈwiːzɐ/ (adv) so, in this way *quén* /kwen/ (m.n) bill *quèst, quèsta* /kwɛʃt, -ɐ/ (dem.pron) this (with temporal nouns that include the moment of speech). *quèst' jamna* this week *quétu̱n* /kweˈtun/ (m.n) braggart *quinada* /kwiˈnaːdɐ/ (f.n) sister-in-law *quinau* /kwiˈnaw/ (m.n) brother-in-law *quindiṣch* /ˈkwindiʒ/ (num) fifteen *quitá* (quéta) /ˈkwitaː/ (/ˈkweːtɐ/) (tr.v) think, find *quitau* /kwiˈtaw/ (m.n) worry *quitòrdiṣch* /kwitɔrdiʒ/ (num) fourteen *quajn* /ˈkwajn/ (adv) here (in direction up the valley) *quòra* /ˈkwɔːrɐ/ (adv) here (in direction down the valley)

# **R**

*raclamá* /rɐklɐmaː/ (itr.v) complain *racògnòszá* /rɐkɔgnɔsˈʦaː/ (tr.v) reconnoitre *racrut* /rɐkˈrut/ (m.n) recruit *rádjò* /ˈradjɔ/ (m.n) radio *radún, -da* /rɐˈdun, -dɐ/ 1. (adj) round 2. (adv) around, about *ragjún* /rɐˈʥun/ (f.n) region *ragurdá vi da* (ragòrda) /rɐɡurˈdaː vi dɐ/ (/rɐˈɡɔrdɐ/) (itr.v) remind *raminiscènza* /rɐminisˈʦɛnʦɐ/ (f.n) memory *ramòntsch* → *ròmòntsch rantá* /rɐntaː/ (tr.v) bind, tie *rap* /rap/ (m.n) cent. *raps* money *raquintá* (raquénta) /rɐkwintˈaː/ (/rɐˈkwéntɐ/) (tr.v) tell about *raritat* /rɐriˈtaːt/ (f.n) rarity *rascá* /rɐʃˈkaː/ (tr.v) risk *raschlá* /rɐʃˈlaː/ (itr.v) rake *raṣdá* (réjṣda) /rɐʒˈdaː/ (/ˈrejʒdɐ/) (itr.v) speak *ras-plí* (pl ras-pjal(t)s) /rɐsˈpliː/ (/rɐsˈpjal(t)s/) (m.n) pencil *rassarvá* /rɐsɐrˈvaː/ (tr.v) reserve *rastá* /rɐʃˈtaː/ (itr.v) remain *rastí* (pl rastjal(t)s) /rɐʃˈtiː/ (/rɐʃˈtjal(t)s/) (m.n) rake *rastònza* /rɐʃˈtɔnʦɐ/ (f.n) remnant *ratún* /rɐˈtun/ (m.n) rat *rauba* /ˈrawbɐ/ (f.n) 1. merchandise 2. fortune *rauna* /ˈrawnɐ/ (f.n) frog *réaczjun* /reɐkˈʦjun/ (f.n) reaction *règína* /rɛˈʥinɐ/ (f.n) queen *règla* /ˈrɛːɡlɐ/ (f.n) rule *réh, réha* /réç, ˈréhɐ/ (adj) rich *réjsch* /rejʃ/ (adv) brand-, in *réjsch néjv* brand-new *rèligjúṣ, -a* /rɛliˈʥuːz, -ɐ/ (adj) religious *rèma* /ˈrɛmɐ/ (f.n) crack *résca* /ˈreʃkɐ/ (f.n) risk *rèst* /rɛʃt/ (m.n) rest. *rèsts* leftovers *rí* /riː/ (irr.itr.v) laugh *riavan* (pl rùvanṣ) /ˈriɐvɐn/ (/ˈrʊːvanz/) (m.n) slope *rigurúṣ, -a* /riɡuˈruːz, -ɐ/ (adj) rigorous *rimná* /rimˈnaː/ (tr.v) collect

```
ring /riŋ/ (m.n) ring
riṣ /riːz/ (m.n) rice
risada /riˈzaːdɐ/ (f.n) laughing
rítmica /ˈritmikɐ/ (f.n) rhythmics
ròla /ˈrɔlɐ/ (f.n) roll
ròma /ˈrɔmɐ/ (coll.f.n) branches
ròmò̱ntsch, -a, ramòntsch, -a /rɔˈmɔnʧ, -ɐ, rɐˈmɔnʧ, -ɐ / (adj/n) Romansh
ruassá (ruaussa) /ruaˈsaː/ (/ruˈawsɐ/) (itr.v) rest
ruassajval, -vla /ruɐˈsajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) calm
ruauṣ /ruˈawz/ (m.n) quiet, tranquillity
ruclá (rùcla) /rukˈlaː/ (/ˈrʊklɐ/) (itr.v) roll, fall
ruj /ruj/ (irr.tr.v) gnaw
rujè (rùga, rugajn, rugava) /ruˈjɛː/ (/ˈrʊːgɐ, ruˈgajn, ruˈgavɐ/) (tr.v) ask that
rúmpar (ptcp rùt, -a) /ˈrumpɐr/ (/rʊt, -ɐ/) (tr.v) break
rumplaná (rampluna) /rumplɐˈnaː/ (/rɐmˈpluːnɐ/) (itr.v) rumble
rupá (raupa) /rupaː/ (/rawpɐ/) (itr.v) burp
rusari /ruˈzaːri/ (f.n) rosary
rùsna /ˈrʊsnɐ/ (f.n) hole
rusp /ruʃp/ (m.n) toad
```
# **S**

```
sablún /saˈblun/ (m.n) sand
sac /sak/ (m.n) sack
sacadòṣ /sɐkɐˈdɔːz/ (m.n) backpack
sacantá (sacjanta) /sɐkɐnˈtaː/ (/sɐkˈjantɐ/) (tr.v) dry
sacramèn /sɐkrɐˈmɛn/ (m.n) sacrament
sacù̱n, -da → zacù̱n
sacundara /sɐkunˈdarɐ/ (f.n) secondary school
sacussagljè (sacusséglja) /sɐkusɐˈʎɛː/ (/sɐkuˈseːʎɐ/) (refl.v) deliberate
sadá gjù cun /sɐˈdaː ʥʊ kun/ (refl.v) have to do with, deal with
sadacidar da fá /sɐdɐˈʦidɐr/ (refl.v) decide to do
sadapurtá (sadapòrta) /sɐdɐpurˈtaː/ (/sɐdɐˈpɔrtɐ/) (refl.v) behave
sadèrgjar (sadargín) (ptcp sadèrs) /sɐˈdɛrʥɐr/ (/sɐdɐrˈʥiːn, sɐˈdɛrs/) (refl.v) fall
down
sadastadá /sɐdɐʃtɐˈdaː/ (irr.refl.v) wake up
sadrizá (sadréza) /sɐdriˈʦaː/ (/sɐˈdreʦɐ/) (refl.v) address
sadurmantá ajn /sɐdurmɐnˈtaː ajn/ (irr.refl.v) fall asleep
safá ajn /sɐˈfaː ajn/ (refl.v) notice
```
*sagir, -a* /sɐˈʥiːr, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) secure, certain 2. (adv) for sure *sagirá* /sɐʥiˈraː/ (tr.v) insure *saglí* (séglja) /sɐˈʎiː/ (/ˈseːʎɐ/) (itr.v) run *sagljantá* /sɐʎɐnˈtaː/ (tr.v) blow up *sahaná* (sahòna) /sɐhɐˈnaː/ (/sɐˈhɔːnɐ/) (itr.v) appreciate *sajda* /ˈsajdɐ/ (f.n) silk *sajv* /sajv/ (f.n) fence *ṣala* /ˈzaːlɐ/ (f.n) hall *salagrá* (salègra) /sɐlɐɡˈraː/ (/sɐlɛːɡrɐ/) (refl.v) appreciate, be happy, be pleased *salamantá* (salamjanta) /sɐlɐmɐnˈtaː/ (/sɐlɐmˈjantɐ/) (refl.v) complain *salata* /sɐˈlatɐ/ (f.n) salad *salín* /sɐˈlin/ (f.n) wheat *salit* /sɐˈlit/ (m.n) greeting *salvá* /sɐlˈvaː/ (tr.v) keep *samagljòn, -ta* /sɐmɐˈʎɔn, -tɐ/ (adj) similar *samaná* /sɐmɐˈnaː/ (refl.v) turn over, turn back *samétar sén via* /sɐˈmetɐr sen ˈviɐ/ (refl.v) set off *samidá* /sɐmiˈdaː/ (refl.v) change *saminar* /sɐmiˈnaːr/ (m.n) training college *samjè* (síamja) /sɐmˈjɛː/ (/ˈsiɐmja/) (itr.v) dream *sampatschè* /sɐmpɐˈʧɛː/ (itr.v) interfere *samudargè* /sɐmudɐrˈʥɛː/ (refl.v) struggle *saniastar, -tra* /sɐˈniɐʃtɐr, -trɐ/ (adj) left *santí* (sjanta) /sɐnˈtiː/ (/ˈsjantɐ/) (tr.v) feel *santimajn* /sɐntiˈmajn/ (m.n) feeling *santupá* (santaupa) /sɐntuˈpaː/ (/sɐnˈtawpɐ/) (refl.v) meet *sanudá* (sanùda) /sɐnuˈdaː/ (/saˈnʊːdɐ/) (refl.v) swim *sanunzjè* /sɐnunˈʦjɛː/ (refl.v) register *sapartgirá* /sɐpɐrʨiˈraː/ (refl.v) be on one's guard *sapladí* (sapladèscha) /sɐplɐˈdiː/ (/sɐplɐˈdɛʃɐ/) (refl.v) sign on *saprèndar ajn* /sɐˈprɛndɐr ajn/ (refl.v) take. *saprèndar ajn zatgéj starmantúṣ* take something very seriously. *saprèndar anzjaman* compose oneself *sapurtá* /sɐpurtaː/ (refl.v) behave *sará* (sjara) /sɐˈraː/ (/ˈsjaːrɐ/) (tr.v) close *saragurdá* (saragòrda) /sɐrɐgurˈdaː/ (/sɐrɐˈgɔrdɐ/) (refl.v) remember *saravagní* /sɐrɐvɐˈɲiː/ (irr.refl.v) recover *sarimná* /sɐrimˈnaː/ (refl.v) meet, assemble *sarvjèta* /sɐrˈvjɛtɐ/ (f.n) napkin

*sasfardantá* (sasfardjanta) /sɐʃfɐrdɐnˈtaː/ (/sɐʃfɐrˈdjantɐ/) (refl.v) catch a cold *sasida* /sɐˈziːdɐ/ (f.n) meeting *saṣjun* /sɐzjun/ (f.n) season *saspártar* /sɐˈʃpartɐr/ (refl.v) split *saspruá da + inf* /sɐʃpruaː dɐ/ (itr.v) try hard to *saspuantá* /sɐʃpuɐnˈtaː/ (refl.v) get frightened *satagljèda* /sɐtɐˈʎɛːdɐ/ (f.n) cut *satjámbar* /sɐtˈjambɐr/ (m.n) September *satrá* (satjara) /sɐˈtraː/ (/sɐˈtjarɐ/) (tr.v) bury *satrá anzjaman* /sɐˈtraː ɐnˈʦjamɐn/ (refl.v) contract. *satrá ò* take off one's clothes *satschantá* /sɐʧɐnˈtaː/ (refl.v) lie down *sauma* /ˈsawmɐ/ (f.n) bridle *saun* /sawn/ (m.n) blood *savaj* /sɐˈvaj/ (irr.tr.v) 1. know 2. can *savènṣ* /sɐˈvɛnz/ (adv) often *savilá cun* /sɐviˈlaː kun/ (refl.v) get angry at *ṣbagljè* /ʒbɐˈʎɛː/ (itr.v) be wrong *ṣbiar* /ˈʒbiɐr/ (m.n) thug *scadá* (scauda) /ʃkɐˈdaː/ (/ˈʃkawdɐ/) (tr.v) warm. *scadá sé* warm up *scadín, -ina* /ʃkɐˈdiːn, -a/ (indef.det) every, any *scaf* /ʃkaːf/ (m.n) footprint *scalín* /ʃkɐˈliːn/ (m.n) bell *scaliná* /ʃkɐliˈnaː/ (itr.v) ring *scanatsch* /ʃkɐˈnaʧ/ (m.n) log *scantschala* /ʃkɐnˈʧaːlɐ/ (f.n) pulpit *scapá* /ʃkɐˈpaː/ (itr.v) escape *scargè<sup>4</sup>* /ʃkɐrˈʥɛː/ (tr.v) drove the animals down from the summer pastures *scargèda* /ʃkɐrˈʥɛːdɐ/ (f.n) droving of the animals down from the summer pastures *scarpá gjù* /ʃkɐrˈpaː ʥʊː/ (tr.v) pull off *scart, -a* /ʃkart, -ɐ/ (adj) scarce *scartèzja* /ʃɐrˈtɛʦjɐ/ 1. (f.n) lack, shortage 2. (elat) very scarce *scha* /ʃɐ/ 1. (comp) if 2. (corr) then *schabagjè* (schabègja) /ʃɐbɐˈʥɛː/ (/ʃɐˈbɛʥɐ/) (itr.v) happen *schabi tga* /ʃɐbiː ʨɐ/ (comp) although

```
schaglùc, schigljùc /ʃɐˈʎʊk, ʃiˈʎʊk/ (adv) otherwise
```
<sup>4</sup>The form *dascargè* is also used

*ṣchaj* /ʒaj/ (irr.itr.v) lie *ṣchanè* /ʒɐnɛː/ (m.n) January *schanza* /ˈʃanʦɐ/ (f.n) chance *schazagè* (schazègja) /ʃɐʦɐˈʥɛː/ (/ʃɐʦˈɛːʥɐ/) (tr.v) appreciate *sché* → *uschéja schè* /ʃɛː/ 1. (irr.tr.v) let, leave. *schè ajn* let in 2. factitive verb *schèf* /ʃɛf/ (m.n) boss *schénghètg* /ʃenˈɡɛʨ/ (n) present *ṣchèniv* /ˈʒɛniv/ (num) nineteen *schétg, -a* /ʃeːʨ, -ɐ/ (adj) dry *schi* /ʃi/ (adv) so (with adjectives and adverbs) *ṣchiarl* (pl ṣchjarls) /ˈʒiɐrl/ (/ʒjarls/) (m.n) kind of basket *schindanajn* /ˌʃindɐˈnajn/ (adv) so in *schizún* /ʃiˈʦun/ (adv) even *schjantá* /ʃjɐntaː/ (tr.v) dry *schliat, schljats, schljata* /ˈʃliɐt, ʃljats, ˈʃljatɐ/ (adj) bad *schlupá* (schlòpa) / ʃluˈpaː/ (/ˈʃlɔpɐ/) (itr.v) burst *schlupantá* (schlupjanta) /ʃlupɐnˈtaː/ (/ʃlupˈjantɐ/) (tr.v) blow up *schnéz* /ʃneʦ/ (m.n) cut *schòn* /ʃɔn/ (adv) already *ṣchòtg* /ʒɔʨ/ (num) eighteen *schuba* /ˈʃuːbɐ/ (f.n) skirt *ṣchùber, -bra* /ˈʒʊbɐr, -brɐ/ 1. (adj) clean 2. (intens) at all *ṣchubargjè* (ṣchubrègja) /ʒubarˈʥɛː/ (/ʒuˈbrɛːʥɐ/) (tr.v) clean *schulá* /ˈʃulaː/ (itr.v) fall rapidly *schurmagè* (schurmègja) /ʃurmɐˈʥɛː/ (/ʃurˈmɛːʥɐ/) (tr.v) protect *scòlár* /ʃkɔˈlaːr/ (m.n) pupil *scòlarèssar* /ʃkɔlɐrˈɛsɐr/ (m.n) school sector *scòlast, -a* /ʃkɔˈlaʃt, -ɐ/ (n) teacher *scòtga* /ˈʃkɔʨɐ/ (f.n) whey *scrinari* /skriˈnaːri/ (m.n) carpenter *scrívar* /ˈʃkriːvɐr/ (tr/itr.v) write *scù* /ʃkʊ/ (adv/comp) as *scúa* /ˈʃkuːɐ/ (f.n) broom *scuá* /ʃkuˈaː/ (tr/itr.v) sweep *scùla* /ˈʃkʊːlɐ/ (f.n) school *scùlèta* /ʃkʊˈlɛtɐ/ (f.n) nursery school *scumandá* (scamònda) /ʃkumɐnˈdaː/ (/ʃkɐˈmɔndɐ/) (tr.v) forbid

```
scumbaglè (scumbèglja) /ʃkumbɐˈʎɛː/ (/scumˈbɛʎɐ/) (tr.v) confuse
scurṣalá (scarṣòla) /ʃkurzɐˈlaː/ (/skɐrˈzɔːlɐ/) (itr.v) sledge
sé /se/ (prep/adv) up
sédajn /seˈdajn/ (adv) up and in
sédaṣch, sédiṣch /ˈseːdɐʒ, ˈseːdiʒ/ (num) sixteen
sédòra /seˈdɔrɐ/ (adv) up there, up and out
sègn /sɛːɲ/ (m.n) sign
séjṣ, sia /sejz, ˈsiɐ/ (poss.pron.3sg and pl.pred) his, hers, their
séjṣ, siaṣ /sejz, ˈsiɐz/ (poss.det.3sg/pl) her, his (pl). als séjṣ, las sias (poss.pron.
3sg/pl.nom) hers, his, their
séjṣar (sasín) /ˈsejzɐr/ (/sɐˈziːn/) (itr.v) sit. séjṣar gjù sit down
sémpal → simpal
sén /sen/ (prep) on
sènda /ˈsɛndɐ/ (f.n) trail, path
sènza /ˈsɛnʦɐ/ (prep) without
sèra /ˈsɛrɐ/ (f.n) afternoon (from 12 o'clock onward), evening. la sèra in the
afternoon, in the evening
sèrv(a)la, sè̱rvòla /ˈsɛrv(ɐ)lɐ, ˈsɛrvɔlɐ/ (f.n) cervelat (kind of sausage)
sèrvitut /sɛrviˈtut/ (f.n) constraint
séssum /seˈsum/ 1. (prep) on top of 2. (adv) uppermost
séssura /sesuːrɐ/ (adv) upon. vagní séssura anzatgéj get to know, find out
sèz, -a /sɛʦ, -ɐ/ (det) self
ṣgarṣchajval, -vla /ʒgɐrˈʒajvɐl, -vlɐ/ (adj) horrible, terrible
ṣgulá (ṣgùla) /ʒɡuˈlaː/ (/ˈʒɡʊːlɐ/) (itr.v) fly
sigir, -a /siˈʥiːr, -ɐ/ 1. (adj) sure 2. (adv) for sure
signún → zagnún
signura /siˈɲuːrɐ/ (m.n) lady
sijè (impf sijèva) /siˈjɛː/ (/siˈjɛvɐ/) (tr.v) mow
simaginá /simaʥiˈnaː/ (refl.v) imagine
símpal, -pla /ˈsimpɐl-plɐ/ (adj) simple
simplamajn /ˌsimplɐˈmajn/ (adv) simply
sir /siːr/ (m.n) father-in-law
sira /ˈsiːrɐ/ (f.n) mother-in-law
siṣ /siːz/ (num) six
sissònta /siˈsɔntɐ/ (num) sixty
sistém /siʃˈteːm/ (m.n) system
sit /sit/ (m.n) south
sitá (sièta) /siˈtaː/ (/siˈɛːtɐ/) (tr.v) 1. shut 2. blow up, blast
```
*sjantar* /ˈsjantɐr/ (adv/prep) after *sjantarmjadṣdé* /ˌsjantɐrmjɐʣˈdeː/ (m.n) afternoon *sjat* /sjat/ (num) seven *sjatònta* /sjaˈtɔntɐ/ (num) seventy *sju, sia* /sju, ˈsiɐ/ (poss.det.3sg/pl) his, her, their *sjut* → *sòlvar ski* /ʃkiː/ (m.n) ski *smacá* /ʃmaˈkaː/ (tr.v) squash *smanatschè* /ʃmɐnɐˈʧɛː/ (tr.v) threaten *sò* /sɔ/ (disc) OK *sòcjètát* /sɔʦjɛˈtaːt/ (f.n) society *sògn, sògnṣ, sòntga* /sɔɲ,sɔɲz ˈsɔnʨɐ/ (adj) 1. holy 2. Saint (in names) *sòlvar* (sulvín) (ptcp sjut) /ˈsɔlvɐr/ (/sulˈviːn, sjut/) (itr.v) have breakfast *sòlvar* /ˈsɔlvɐr/ (m.n) breakfast *sònda* /ˈsɔndɐ/ (f.n) Saturday *sònda-duméngja* /ˈsɔndɐ-duˈmenʥɐ/ (f.n) week-end *Sòntgalcrést* /ˌsɔnʨɐlˈkreʃt/ (m.n) Corpus Christi *sòntgè̱t* /sɔnˈʨɛt/ (m.n) little chapel *sòra* /ˈsɔrɐ/ (f.n) sister, Sister *sòrtida* /sɔrtiːdɐ/ (f.n) going out *spargnè* /ʃpɐrˈɲɛː/ (itr.v) save (money) *spassagè* /ʃpɐsɐˈʥɛː/ (itr.v) walk *spatgè* (spètga) /ʃpɐˈʨɛː/ (/ˈspɛːʨɐ/) (tr/itr.v) wait *spaz* /ʃpaːʦ/ (m.n) walk. *ir' a spaz* go for a walk *spazjal, -a* /ʃpɐʦˈjaːl, -ɐ/ (adj) special *spéjgl* (pl spùl(t)s) /ʃpejʎ/ (/ʃpʊl(t)s/) (m.n) bobbin *spèr* /ʃpɛr/ (prep) next to, close to *spèraṣ* /ˈʃpɛːrɐz/ (adv) in addition, next to (it) *spèrasò* /ˌʃpɛːrɐˈzɔː/ (adv) next to (in direction down the valley) *spért* /ʃpeːrt/ (m.n) spirit *spèrt* /ʃpɛrt/ (adv) rapidly, quickly *spès, -ssa* /ʃpɛs, -ɐ/ (adj) dense *spina* / ˈspiːnɐ/ (f.n) tap *spital* /ʃpiˈtaːl/ (m.n) hospital *spjardar* (spardín) /ˈʃpjardɐr/ (/ʃpɐrˈdiːn/) (tr.v) lose *splaná* (splauna) /ʃplɐˈnaː/ (/ˈʃplawnɐ/) (tr.v) plane *spòntán, -a* /ʃpɔnˈtaːn, -ɐ/ (adj) spontaneous *spòrt* /ʃpɔrt/ (m.n) sport

```
sprizá (spréza) /ʃpriˈʦaː/ (/ʃpreˈʦɐ/) (tr.v) squirt
squétsch /ʃkweʧ/ (m.n) pressure
stá /ʃtaː/ (itr.v) stay, live. stá mal be sorry
stat /staːt/ (f.n) summer
stala /ˈʃtaːlɐ/ (f.n) sheepfold
starmantúṣ, -a; str̩mantúṣ, -a /ʃtɐrmɐnˈtuːz, -a; ʃtrmɐnˈtuːz, -a/ ( ̩ adj) terrible
státua /ˈʃtatwɐ/ (f.n) statue
stauschbèna /ˌʃtauʃˈbɛnɐ/ (m.n) wheelbarrow
stával /ˈʃtaːvɐl/ (m.n) cowshed
stazjun /ʃtɐˈʦjun/ (f.n) station
stédi, -a /ˈʃtedi, -ɐ/ (adj) diligent
stédjamajn /ˌʃtedjɐˈmajn/ (adv) constantly
stém /ʃteːm/ (m.n) 1. attention 2. fa stém pay close attention 3. fá stém tga make
sure that
stgafa /ˈʃʨafɐ/ (f.n) box
stgè → astgè
stgir, -a /ʃʨiːr, -ɐ/ (adj) dark
stgiradétgna /ʃʨirɐˈdeʨnɐ/ (f.n) darkness
stgiraglja /ˌʃʨiˈraʎɐ/ (f.n) darkness
stiarl (pl stjarls) /ˈʃtiɐrl/ (/ˈʃtjarls/) (m.n) one-year-old calf
stinau, -ada /ʃtiˈnaw, -ˈadɐ/ (adj) obstinate
stiva /ˈʃtiːvɐ/ (f.n) living room
stizá (stéza) /ʃtiˈʦaː/ (/ˈʃteʦɐ/) (tr.v) turn off
stjarsaṣ /ˈʃtjarsɐz/ (adv) the day before yesterday
stradún /ʃtrɐˈdun/ (m.n) main way
strèntg, -a /ʃtrɛnʨ, -ɐ/ (adj) strict
stréja, stréa /ˈʃtre(j)ɐ/ (f.n) witch
strèng → strèntg
strètg, -a /ʃtrɛʨ, -ɐ/ (adj) narrow
stròm /ʃtrɔm/ (m.n) straw
strusch /ʃtruːʃ/ (adv) almost
stuaj /ʃtuˈaj/ (tr.v) must, have to
studagjè (studègja) /studɐˈʥɛː/ (/stuˈdɛːʥɐ/) (tr/itr.v) study
stùmpa /ˈʃtʊmpɐ/ (f.n) cheroot
stupèn, -ta /ʃtuˈpɛn, -tɐ/ (adj) excellent
stùrṣ /ʃtʊrz/ (m.n) sheet metal
stuschè (stauscha) /ʃtuˈʃɛː/ (/ˈʃtawʃɐ/) (tr.v) push
suá (síua) /suˈaː/ (/ˈsiwɐ/) (itr.v) sweat
```
*sufizjènts, -sufizjèntaṣ* /sufiʦˈjɛnts, sufiʦˈjɛntsaz/ (pl.adj) enough *suflá* /sufˈlaː/ (itr.v) blow *sujèt* /suˈjɛt/ (m.n) rope *sulégl* /suˈleʎ/ (m.n) sun *sulèt, -a* /suˈlɛt, -ɐ/ (adj) only *suna da bùca* /ˈsuːnɐ dɐ ˈbʊkɐ/ (f.n) harmonica *suná* /suˈnaː/ (tr.v) play (an instrument) *súpar* /ˈsupɐr/ (adv/excl) great *ṣur* /zuːr/ (prep) over, above. *ṣur da* about *ṣurɐ* /zuːrɐ/ (adv) up. *dá ṣura pènṣums* give homework *ṣurangjù* /ˌzuːrɐnˈʥʊ/ (adv) over and down, from above down *surdamaun* /ˌsuːrdaˈmaun/ (adv) the day after tomorrow *surfatscha* /surˈfaʧɐ/ (f.n) surface *ṣuròra* /ˌzurˈɔːrɐ/ (adv) from above *surprèndar* /surˈprɛndɐr/ (irr.tr.v) take on, take over *sursilván, -a* /sursilˈvaːn, -ɐ/ (adj/n) Sursilvan *survagní* /survaˈɲiː/ (irr.tr.v) receive, get *survètsch* /surˈvɛʨ/ (m.n) service *surví* (survèscha) /surˈviː/ (/surˈvɛʃɐ/) (tr/itr.v) serve *survigiládar* /ˌsurviʥiˈlaːdɐr/ (m.n) supervisor *survigilònza* /ˌsurviʥiˈlɔnʦɐ/ (f.n) vigilance *suschéja* → *ussuschéja ṣùt* /zʊt/ (prep) under. *métar a ṣùt*<sup>5</sup> yoke *sutá* (sauta) /suˈtaː/ (/ˈsawtɐ/) (itr.v) dance *ṣutajn* /ˌzʊtˈajn/ (adv) underneath *ṣutṣvilupau, -aːda* /ˌzutʒviluˈpaw, -adɐ/ (adj) underdeveloped *ṣuttètg* /ˌzutˈtɛʨ/ (m.n) accomodation *ṣvagljarín* /ʒvɐʎɐˈriːn/ (m.n) alarm clock *ṣvaní* /ʒvɐniː/ (itr.v) disappear *ṣvidá* /ʒviˈdaː/ (tr.v) empty

# **T**

*tabla* /ˈtaːblɐ/ (f.n) tray *tagljè* /tɐˈʎɛː/ (tr.v) cut *tagljér* (pl tagljòrs) /tɐˈʎeːr/ (/tɐˈʎɔrs/) (m.n) plate *tajṣ* /tajz/ (m.n) badger

<sup>5</sup> Some people say *sut* instead of *ṣut* in this context.

```
talafòn /tɐlɐˈfɔn/ (m.n) phone
talafòná/tlafòná da /t(ɐ)lɐfɔˈnaː dɐ/ (v.tr) phone, call
talènt /tɐˈlɛnt/ (m.n) talent
taljan /tɐˈljaːn/ (m.n) Italian (language)
taljánar, -a /tɐˈʎaːnɐr, -ɐ/ (adj and n) Italian
tamprau, -ada /tɐmˈpraw, -adɐ/ (adj) lukewarm
tanaj /tɐˈnaj/ (irr.v) hold. tanaj aut uphold
tar → tiar
taratsch /tɐˈraʧ/ (m.n) soil
taritòri /tɐriˈtɔri/ (m.n) territory
tarmaglè /tɐrmɐʎɛː/ (itr.v) play
tarmètar /tɐrˈmɛtɐr/ (irr.tr.v) send
tarségl /tɐrˈseːʎ/ (m.n) assistant (of the zagnún)
tart /tart/ (adv) late
tartgè (tratga) /tɐrˈʨɛː/ (/ˈtraːʨɐ/) (tr/itr.v) think
tat /tat/ (m.n) grandfather
tata /tatɐ/ (f.n) grandmother
tatlá (tajtla) /tɐtˈlaː/ (/ˈtajtlɐ/) (tr.v) listen
taun, -ta /tawn, -tɐ/ (quant.det/pron) so many
tauna /ˈtawnɐ/ (f.n) cave
taur /tawr/ (m.n) bull
té /teː/ (pers.pron) you (sg)
tè /tɛ/ (m.n) tea
tég, téc /teːɡ, teːk/, in in teːk, in teːg (quant) a bit
tégja /ˈteːʥɐ/ (f.n) alpine hut
téjṣ, tia /tejz, ˈtiɐ/ (poss.pron.pred) yours (sg)
téjṣ, tiaṣ /tejz, ˈtiɐz/ (poss.det.2sg) your (pl). als téjṣ, las tiaṣ (poss.pron.2sg)
yours (pl)
tèma /ˈtɛːmɐ/ (f.n) fear
tèscha /ˈtɛʃɐ/ (f.n) bag
tèssinè̱ṣ, -a /tɛsiˈnɛz, -ɐ/ (adjn) from the canton of Ticino
tètg /tɛʨ/ (m.n) roof
tèxt /tɛkst/ (m.n) text
tga /ʨɐ/ 1. (rel.pron) that, which 2. (comp) that
tgamín /ʨɐˈmiːn/ (m.n) chimney
tgaminada /ʨɐmiˈnadɐ/ (f.n) pantry
tgamus /tgaˈmuːs/ (m.n) chamois. bùc tgamus chamois buck. tgaura tgamus
female chamois
```
*tgapjala* /ʨɐˈpjaːlɐ/ (f.n) hat *tgar* /ʨaːr/ (m.n) cart *tgar, -a* /ʨaːr, -a/ (adj) dear *tgarn* /ʨarn/ (m.n) meat *tgarnpiartg* /ˌʨarnˈpiɐrʨ/ (m.n) bacon *tgau* /ʨaw/ (m.n) head *tgaubriacal* (pl tgaubròcals) /ˌʨawˈbriakal/ (/ˌʨawˈbrɔkɐls/) (m.n) somersault *tgaud, -a* /ʨawd, -ɐ/ (adj) cold *tgaun* /ʨawn/ (m.n) dog *tgaura* /ˈʨawrɐ/ (f.n) goat *tgaussa* /ˈʨawsɐ/ (f.n) thing *tgau-tégja* (pl tgaus-tégja) /ʨaw-ˈteːʥɐ/ (/ʨaws-ˈteːʥɐ/) (m.n) head of the alpine huts *tgautschaṣ* /ˈʨawʧɐz/ (pl.f.n) trousers *tgauvitg* (pl tgauvitgs) /ˌʨawˈviːʨ/ (/ˌʨawˈviːʨs/) (m.n) head of village *tgavaj* (pl tgavals) /ʨɐˈvaj/ (/ʨɐˈvals/) (m.n) horse *tgavégl* (pl tgavéjgl(t)s) /ʨɐˈveʎ/ (/ʨɐˈvejʎ(t)s/) (m.n) hair *tgé(j)* /ʨe(j)/ 1. (interr.pron) what 2. (interr.det) which *tgé(j)nín, -ina* /ʨe(j)ˈniːn, -ɐ/ (interr.pron) which one *tgéjt* /ʨejt/ (m.n) cock *tgèr, -a* /ʨɛːr, -ɐ/ (adj) expensive *tgérn* (pl còrnṣ) /ʨern/ (/kɔrnz/) (m.n) horn *tgèsa* /ˈʨɛzɐ/ (f.n) house. *tgèsa comunala* community hall *tgèsa-parvènda* /ˈʨɛzɐ-pɐrˈvɛndɐ/ (f.n) presbytery *tgétschan, còtschanṣ, còtschna* /ˈʨeʧɐn, ˈkɔʧɐnz ˈkɔʧnɐ/ (adj) red *tgi* /ʨiː/ (interr.pron) who *tgiarp* /ˈʨiɐrp/ (m.n) body *tgiè* (tgaja) /ʨiˈɛː/ (/ˈ/) (ʨajɐ) itr.v shit *tgil* /ʨiːl/ (m.n) arse *tgilada* /ʨiˈlaːdɐ/ (f.n) slip *tgòmba* /ˈʨɔmbɐ/ (f.n) leg *tgòmbra* /ˈʨɔmbrɐ/ (f.n) room *tgunṣch* /ʨunʒ/ (adv) easily *tiar, tar, tr̩* /ˈtiɐr, tɐr, tr/ ( ̩ prep) at, by *tiarm* (pl tjarmṣ) /ˈtiɐrm/ (/ˈtjarmz/) (m.n) boundary stone *tiarz, tjarza* /tiɐrʦ, ˈtjarʦɐ/ (ord.num) third. *ina tjarza* one third *tiptòp* /tipˈtɔp/ (adv) perfectly *tissi* /ˈtisi/ (m.n) poison

```
tjamṣ /tjamz/ (m.n) time
tjarza → tiarz
tju, tia /tju, ˈtiɐ/ (poss.det) your (sg)
tòc /tɔk/ (m.n) 1. part. in tòc a bit 2. theatre play 3. prank
tòca, tòcan /ˈtɔka, ˈtɔkan/ (prep) till, until
tr̩ → tiar
trá /traː/ (irr.tr.v) pull. trá ajn put on. trá sé make fun of
tractá /trɐkˈtaː/ (tr.v) treat
tradizjun /trɐdiˈʦjun/ (f.n) tradition
tráfic /ˈtrafik/ (m.n) traffic
traficá /trɐfiˈkaː/ (itr.v) be up to
trajs /trajz/ (num) three
traj(a)tschian /ˌtraj(ɐ)ˈtschiɐn/ (num) three hundred
trans-pòrt /trɐnsˈpɔrt/ (m.n) transport
trans-pòrtá /trɐnspɔrˈtaː/ (tr.v) transport
traplá /trɐˈplaː/ (tr.v) catch
traj(a) /ˈtrajɐ/ (num) three in traj(a)tschian, traj(a) mili, and traja pèra three
pairs
traṣ → atráṣ
trèdiṣch /ˈtrɛːdiʒ/ (num) thirteen
trèn /trɛn/ (m.n) train
trènta /ˈtrɛntɐ/ (num) thirty
trést → trist
trist, -a /triʃt, -ɐ/ (adj) sad
tròcaṣ /trɔkɐz/ (pl.f.n) typical card game of the Surselva
trúfal /ˈtrufɐl/ (m.n) potato. métar trúfals sow potatoes
trùtg (pl truigls) /trʊːʨ/ (/trwiʎs/) (m.n) narrow path
tschafan /ˈʧafɐn/ (m.n) desire, pleasure
tschagrún /ʧɐgˈrun/ (m.n) whey cheese
tschajna /ˈʧajnɐ/ (f.n) dinner
tschajvar /ˈʧajvɐr/ (m.n) carnival
tschalè /ʧɐˈlɛː/ (m.n) cellar
tschantá /ʧɐntˈaː/ (tr.v) put, place. tschantá ajn start, turn on
tschantanè /ʧɐntɐˈnɛː/ (m.n) century
tscharva /ˈʧarvɐ/ (f.n) deer. taur tgarva stag. vaca tgarva hind
tschavrè, tschavrèra /ʧɐvˈrɛː, ʧɐvrˈɛːrɐ/ (m. and f.n) goatheard
tschèl, -a /ʧɛl, -ɐ/ (dem.pron.m/f) that, that one, the other one
tschèluisa /ʧɛlˈwiːzɐ/ (adv) in that/such a way
```
*tschèrca* /ˈʧɛrkɐ/ (f.n) demand *tschiac, tschòcs, tschòca* /ˈʧiɐk, ʧɔks, ˈʧɔkɐ/ (adj) blind *tschian* /ˈʧiɐn/ (num) hundred *tschichi* /ˈʧiki/ (m.n) pig (familiar speech) *tschitschè* (tschétscha) /ʧiˈʧɛː/ (/ˈʧeːʧɐ/) (tr.v) suck *tschò* /ʧɔ/ (adv) here. *tschò a lò* here and there *tschòca, tschòcs* → *tschiac tschuculata* /ʧucuˈlatɐ/ (f.n) chocolate *tschùf, -a* /ʧʊːf, -ɐ/ (adj) dirty *tschùf* /ʧʊːf/ (m.n) dirt *tschun* /ʧun/ (num) five *tschuncònta* /ʧunˈkɔntɐ/ (num) fifty *tschúpal* /ˈʧupɐl/ (m.n) lot *tualèta* /twɐˈlɛtɐ/ (f.n) toilet *tuatschín, -ina* /tuɐˈʧiːn, -ɐ/ (adj) from the Tujetsch valley *tucá* /tuˈkaː/ (tr/itr.v) 1. beat 2. strike *tudèstg, -a* /tuˈdɛʃʨ, -ɐ/ (adj/n) German *tumaj* /tuˈmaj/ (irr.tr/itr.v) be afraid of, fear *tup, -a* /tup, -ɐ/ (adj) stupid *tupadad* /tupɐˈdaːd/ (f.n) stupidity *tupira* /tuˈpiːrɐ/ 1. (f.n) stupidity 2. (elat) very stupid *tura* /ˈtuːrɐ/ (f.n) tour *turismus* /tuˈrismus/ (m.n) tourism *turist* /tuˈriʃt/ (m.n) tourist *turná* (tùrna) /turˈnaː/ (/ˈtʊrnɐ/) (tr.v) turn, return, go back *turpègj, turpètg* /turˈpɛʥ, turˈpɛʨ/ (m.n) shame *tussègazjun* /tusɛgaˈʦjun/ (f.n) poisoning *tùt* /tʊt/ (quant) all *tùtajnína* /ˌtʊtajˈniːnɐ/ (adv) suddenly *tùta* /ˈtʊtɐ/ (quant) whole *tùts, tùtas* /tʊʦ, ˈtʊtɐs/ (quant.det.pl) all *tutina* /tuˈtina/ (adv) nevertheless, in spite of it *tüp* /typ/ (m.n) fellow

# **U**

*u … né* /u ... ne/ (conj) either … or (with nouns) *u tga* /u ʨɐ/ (conj) or. *u tga … né tga* either … or (with clauses) *u-* /uː/ (elat) very

*ualti* /ˈwalti/ (adv) quite *uaut* /uˈawt/ (m.n) forest, woods *uclaun* /ukˈlawn/ (m.n) hamlet *udí* (auda) /uˈdiː/ (/ˈawdɐ/) (tr.v) hear. *udí da* belong to *uélp* /welp/ (f.n) fox *uést* /uˈeʃt/ (n.m) August *uéstg* /wéʃʨ/ (m.n) bishop *ufaun* /uˈfawn/ (m.n) child *ufaunza* /uˈfawnʦɐ/ (f.n) childhood *ugagè* (ughègja) /uɡɐˈʥɛː/ (/uˈɡɛːʥɐ/) (tr.v) dare *ugèn* /uˈʥɛn/ (adv) gladly, with pleasure *uísa* /ˈwiːzɐ/ (f.n) way, manner *ujara* /uˈjaːrɐ/ (f.n) war *ùm* (pl ùmanṣ) /ʊm/ (/ùmɐnz/) (m.n) man, husband *úndṣchar ajn* /ˈundʒɐr ajn/ (tr.v) 1. oil 2. rub in *unflá* /unflaː/ (itr.v) swell *unimòg* /uniˈmɔg/ (m.n) unimog *unjun* /unˈjun/ (f.n) union *unviarn* (pl unvjarns) /unˈviɐrn/ (/unˈvjarns/) (m.n) winter *ura* /ˈuːrɐ/ (f.n) 1. hour 2. clock *ùrdan* /ˈʊrdɐn/ (m.n) 1. order 2. utensil *urticla* /urˈtiklɐ/ (f.n) nettle *ùṣ, ùsa, ùssa* /ʊz, ˈʊzɐ, ˈʊsɐ/ (adv) now *usché, uschéja* /uˈʃe, uˈʃejɐ/ (adv) so *úsit* /ˈuːzit/ (m.n) habit, usage *ussusché(j)a* /usuˈʃe(j)ɐ/ (adv) exactly so *ustér* /uʃˈteːr/ (m.n) restaurant manager *ustria* /uʃtˈriɐ/ (f.n) restaurant *utschí* (pl utschjal(t)s) /uˈʧiː/ (/uˈʧjal(t)s/) (m.n) bird *uzá* (auza) /uˈʦaː/ (/ˈawʦɐ/) (tr.v) lift

# **V**

*vaca* /ˈvakɐ/ (f.n) cow *vacanzaṣ* /vɐˈkanʦɐz/ (pl.f.n) holidays *vadí* (pl vadjal(t)s) /vɐˈdiː/ (/vɐˈdjal(t)s/) (m.n) calf *vadjala* /vɐˈdjalɐ/ (f.n) female calf *vagljadétgna* /vɐʎɐˈdeʨnɐ/ (f.n) age *vagljantá* /vɐʎɐnˈtaː/ (tr.v) upset

*vagní* /vɐˈɲiː/ 1. (itr.v) come.*vagní atrás* earn a living. *vagní avaun* occur, be found. *vagní par* come and fetch. *vagní séssura* discover 2. become 3. passive auxiliary *vaj* /vaj/ 1. (tr.v) have. *vaj ugèn* like, be fond of. *vaj da* have to. *vaj nùm* have to; be called. *vaj prèsè̱n* have in mind. 2. (exist) there is 3. (aux.v) have *vajr, -a* /vajr, -ɐ/ (adj) 1. true 2. real *vajramájn* /ˌvajrɐˈmajn/ (adv) really *val* /vaːl/ (f.n) valley *valaj* /vɐˈlaj/ (itr.v) be worth *valiṣcha* /vɐˈliːʒɐ/ (f.n) suitcase *vandètga* /vɐnˈdɛʨɐ/ (f.n) revenge *vargè* /vɐrˈʥɛː/ (itr.v) pass by. *l'jamna vargèda* last week *vart* /vart/ (f.n) side *vasaj* /vɐˈzaj/ (irr.tr.v) see *vaschala* /vɐˈʃaːlɐ/ (f.n) dishes *vaschnaunca* /vaʃˈnawnkɐ/ (f.n) municipality *vazlè* /vɐʦˈlɛː/ (m.n) calf herdsman *végl, -glja* /veʎ, -ɐ/ (adj) old *végljadétschna* /veʎɐˈdeʧnɐ/ (f.n) age *végn* /veɲ/ (num) twenty *véjdar, -dra* /ˈvejdɐr, -drɐ/ (adj) old (only in certain contexts) *vèndar* (vandín) /ˈvɛndɐr/ (/vɐnˈdiːn/) (tr.v) sell *vèndardíṣ* /ˌvɛndɐrˈdiːz/ (m.n) Friday *véntgaduṣ* /ˌvenʨɐˈduṣ/ (num) twenty-two *véntgín* /venˈʨin/ (num) twenty-one *vèrd, -a* /vɛrd, -ɐ/ (adj) green *vèṣ* /vɛz/ (adv) difficult. *fá vèṣ* be difficult *vésta* /ˈveʃtɐ/ (f.n) sight *véta* /ˈvetɐ/ (f.n) life *vi* /vi/ (prep) over *via* /ˈviɐ/ 1. (f.n) way, road, street 2. (adv) <sup>6</sup> over 3. (circp) *ṣur … via* over *viafiar* /viɐˈfiɐr/ (f.n) railway *viagè* /viɐˈʥɛː/ (itr.v) travel *viars* /ˈviɐrs/ (prep) towards *viaṣ, vòssa* /viɐz, vɔsɐ/ (poss.det.2pl) your (sg). *al viaṣ, la vòssa* (poss.pron.2pl) yours (sg) *vid* /vid/ (prep) on

<sup>6</sup>*Vía* in the sense of 'over' is an obsolescent synonym of *vi*.

### 9 Tuatschin-English word list

```
vida /ˈvidɐ/ + infinitive progressive marker
vidajn /viˈdajn/ (adv) 1. there, into it 2. uphill 3. up the valley
vidanò /vidɐˈnɔ/ (adv) 1. back and forth 2. and so on
vidòr(a) /viˈdɔːr(ɐ)/ (adv) down the valley
vidòragjù /viˌdɔrɐˈʥʊ/ (adv) over, out and down
vièdi /ˈviˈɛːdi/ (m.n) trip
vin /viːn/ (m.n) wine
vin /vin/ (prep) over in
vinavaun /vinɐˈvawn/ (adv) still, farther, further, forward
visaví /vizɐˈviː/ (adv) in front
vit, -a /vit, -ɐ/ (adj) empty
vitg /viːʨ/ (m.n) village
viˈtgèt /viˈʨɛt/ (m.n) small village
vitlùndar /vitˈlʊndɐr/ (adv) 1. on it, next to it 2. progressive marker (without
verb; cf. vida)
viv, -a /viv, -ɐ/ (adj) alive
vívar /ˈviːvɐr/ (tr.v) live
vjantar /ˈvjantɐr/ (m.n) belly
vjaspraṣ /vjaʃˈprɐz/ (pl.f.n) vesper
vòluntárjamajn /vɔlunˈtarjaˌmajn/ (adv) voluntarily
vòn /vɔn/ (m.n) glove
vònzaj /vɔnˈʦaj/ (adv) later
vòṣ, vòssa /vɔz, ˈvɔsɐ/ (poss.pron.2pl.pred) yours (sg)
vòṣ, vòssaṣ /vɔz, vɔsɐz/ (poss.det.2pl) your (pl)
vòtazjun /vɔtaˈʦjun/ (f.n) vote
vulaj /vuˈlaj/ (irr.tr.v) want
vuṣ /vuːz/ 1. (pers.pron.2pl) you 2. (pol.pron.2sg/2pl) you
vusch /vuːʃ/ (f.n) voice
```
# **X**

*x-zatgéj* /iks-ʦɐˈʨej/ something, anything

# **Z**

*zacònts, -tas* /ʦɐˈkɔnts, -tɐs/ (indef.det/pron) some *zacú, zacuras* /ʦɐˈkuː, ʦɐˈkuːrɐs/ (adv) sometime *zacù* /ʦɐˈkʊ/ (adv) somehow *zacù̱n, -da* /ʦɐˈkʊn, -dɐ/ (ord.num) second

*zagnún* /ʦɐˈɲun/ (m.n) alpine dairyman *zagríndar, -a* /ʦɐˈɡrindɐr, -ɐ/ (adj. and n) Yenish<sup>7</sup> *zajvar* /ˈʦajvɐr/ (m.n) washtub *zamèn* /ʦɐˈmɛn/ (m.n) cement *zaná* /ʦɐˈnaː/ (tr.v) renovate *zanúa* /ʦɐˈnuɐ/ (adv) somewhere *zanur* /ʦɐˈnuːr/ (f.n) dishonour *zarclá* /ʦɐrkˈlaː/ (itr.v) weed *zarcladur* /ʦɐrklɐˈduːr/ (m.n) June *zarclunza* /ʦɐrkˈlunʦɐ/ (f.n) weeder woman *zatgé(j)* /ʦɐˈʨe(j)/ 1. (indef.pron) something 2. (quant) some *zatgi* /ʦɐˈʨiː/ (indef.pron) somebody *zavrá* (zajvra) /ʦɐvˈraː/ (/ˈʦajvrɐ/) (tr.v) separate *ziap, zòps, zòpa* /ˈʦiɐp, ʦɔps, ˈʦɔpɐ/ (adj) limp *zuar* /zwaːr/ (adv) although, namely *zulá* (zùla) /ʦuˈlaː/ (/ˈʦʊːlɐ/) (tr.v) roll out *zulè* /ʦuˈlɛ/ (m.n) corridor

<sup>7</sup>The Yenish are an empoverished group in Switzerland and elsewhere who became nomads in the 18th century, some of whom also became sedentary. In Switzerland they were discriminated for a long time, and even today many people are prejudiced against them. Only in 1995 were they recognised as a national minority, be they travelling or sedentary.

# **References**


### References


# **Name index**

Berther, Baseli, 3, 43, 66, 85, 220, 247 Berther, Francestg, 3, 36, 37, 45, 166, 224, 254, 255 Büchli, Arnold, 3, 14, 29, 32, 34–38, 41, 42, 44, 51, 52, 55, 63, 69, 70, 73, 84, 85, 89, 91–97, 101, 103, 104, 107, 109, 110, 138– 140, 146, 147, 151, 155, 157, 158, 168, 178–180, 183, 192, 193, 195, 196, 199, 200, 202, 205, 208, 209, 218, 220, 222, 224, 227, 232, 234, 241, 242, 244, 246, 248, 251, 254–256, 259, 260, 263, 264, 266, 296 Caduff, Léonard, 3, 6, 13 Decurtins, Alexi, 8, 77, 126, 268 Ebneter, Theodor, 200 Gadola, Guglielm, 3, 28, 41, 45, 156, 165, 174 Gartner, Theodor, 3, 43, 58, 74, 94, 95 Grünert, Matthias, 151 Hendry, Vic, 3, 6 Linder, Karl Peter, 35, 64, 65, 73 Liver, Ricarda, 8, 12 Maurer, Philippe, 3, 35 Spescha, Arnold, 25, 67, 68, 213, 265

Valär, Rico, 3, 99, 246, 253

Winzap, Isidor, 80

# **Language index**

Putér, 1

Rumantsch Grischun, 1

Standard German, 4, 6, 8, 185<sup>14</sup> , 281<sup>11</sup> , 363<sup>59</sup> , 437<sup>85</sup> Standard Sursilvan, 1, 3–6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 26, 30, 39, 39<sup>6</sup> , 48<sup>11</sup> , 50, 51, 58<sup>13</sup> , 67<sup>15</sup> , 77, 80, 81, 94, 103, 109<sup>2</sup> , 112, 114, 134, 151<sup>7</sup> , 159, 162, 174<sup>10</sup> , 178<sup>12</sup> , 194<sup>18</sup> , 200<sup>21</sup> , 212<sup>25</sup> , 232<sup>2</sup> , 233, 267, 271<sup>2</sup> , 272<sup>5</sup> , 278<sup>9</sup> , 304<sup>25</sup> , 323<sup>30</sup> , 348<sup>52</sup> , 352<sup>53</sup> , 354<sup>56</sup> , 370<sup>65</sup> , 372<sup>67</sup> , 380<sup>68</sup> , 384<sup>70</sup> , 389<sup>74</sup> , 443<sup>91</sup> , 443<sup>92</sup> , 446<sup>94</sup> , 476<sup>2</sup> Surmiran, 1, 12<sup>1</sup> , 36, 187, 335 Sursilvan, 1 Sutsilvan, 1, 12<sup>1</sup> , 36, 252, 323<sup>30</sup> Swiss German, 6, 8

Vallader, 1

ability, 174, 175 adjective, 32, 40, 42, 61, 67, 80–83, 85, 107, 108, 136, 214, 256 adjective phrase, 81 adjunct clauses, 151, 238 adpositional phrases, 187 agent, 88, 236 agreement, 66, 184, 234 anaphoric, 40, 41, 43, 49, 193 anaphoric demonstrative, 15 animacy, 196 antecedent, 40, 65, 100, 101, 104, 105 argument clauses, 238 argument order, 179 article, 35, 142, 210, 239 article verb, 164 attributive, 1, 67, 68, 461 attributive adjective, 40 augmentative, 266, 267 auxiliary, 95, 111, 112, 114, 128, 136, 135, 137–139, 146, 148 230, 259 bare, 35 bare noun, 31, 53, 54, 193 bare noun phrases, 211 beneficiary, 185 beneficiary adjuncts, 214

calendar, 206 cardinal numerals, 58 cataphorically, 42, 45

causal, 50, 140 causal adjuncts, 215 causative, 233, 266 causative verbs, 232, 233 causative voice, 232 close front rounded, 12 collective, 29, 30, 58 comitative, 167 comitative adjuncts, 215 comparative, 57, 61, 72, 189, 213 compound nouns, 26 compound tense, 112, 218 compounding of nouns, 266 concessive clauses, 258 conditional, 17, 111<sup>3</sup> , 120, 158–161, 172<sup>9</sup> conditional clauses, 254 consecutive, 49, 189 consecutive clause, 256 consonant clusters, 17 consonants, 14–18, 22, 22<sup>2</sup> , 23, 33, 34, 68 contact languages, 6 contracted, 90, 98<sup>18</sup> , 216 Coordinating conjunctions, 237 copulative verb, 70 craj, 132 dative article, 35, 35<sup>4</sup> , 37, 95 dative indefinite pronoun, 56 dative marker, 1, 2, 88, 93, 94, 109<sup>2</sup> , 187, 236

definite article, 32, 34, 35, 37, 72, 105, 151, 193, 209 definite dative article, 32, 35<sup>4</sup> , 38, 39, 93 degrees of comparison, 72 demonstrative, 40–42, 71, 108, 189, 210 demonstrative determiner, 193 demonstrative pronoun, 90, 260 demonyms, 34 derivational morphemes, 266 derivational suffix, 267 determiner, 32, 40, 43, 47, 48, 61, 209, 210 diminutive, 17, 266 diphthong, 1, 13, 21, 22, 26, 233 direct conditional, 111, 159–161, 256 direct object, 31, 44, 87, 99, 107, 109, 182, 185, 186, 223, 232, 276<sup>8</sup> directive speech act, 152, 154 distal, 40 ditransitive verb, 109, 183–185 doubly-compound pluperfect, 150 doubly-compound tenses, 111, 112, 135, 150 duaj, 132 dumandá, 109, 183 dynamic passive, 234 dá, 131, 174, 233 dí, 93, 134 elative, 74 ending, 118 epenthetic n, 14 epistemic modality, 178 èssar, 112, 136, 146, 230 euphonic, 112 existential verb, 169 experiencer, 187

expletive pronoun, 65, 91, 95, 96, 109, 112, 114, 161, 169, 171, 184, 240 finite categories, 111, 135, 230 finite causal clauses, 253 finite comparative clauses, 257 finite object clauses, 241 finite purposive clauses, 251 finite subject clauses, 240 finite subordinate clauses, 238 finite temporal clauses, 247 first person singular object pronoun, 236 first person singular pronoun, 238 focus, 258 free indirect speech, 153 fugí, 135 future, 111, 112, 114, 121, 143, 144, 149 fá, 37, 131, 232, 233 gender, 9, 25, 32, 35, 36, 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 59, 67, 71, 90, 91, 136, 146, 161, 235, 269 generic, 29, 70, 71, 87, 105–107 gerund, 111, 114, 121, 135, 140, 266 glides, 12 grammatical gender, 25 gudaj, 132 habitual, 143, 145, 150, 163 hiatus, 13, 14, 21 hortative, 229 human nouns, 25, 195 í, 64, 134, 144, 147, 182, 224, 237, 255 imperfect, 112, 118, 119, 126, 142, 148, 150, 159, 256 imperfect indicative, 111, 118, 120, 145 imperfect subjunctive, 111, 121, 159

impersonal, 109, 172 impersonal constructions, 95 impersonal passive, 95, 184 impersonal verb, 109 inanimate nouns, 195 inchoative, 95, 147, 148 indefinite article, 35, 37, 57, 105, 193, 210 indicative mood, 153, 156 indirect conditional, 111, 161, 256 indirect interrogative clause, 242, 260 indirect object, 3, 44, 87, 88, 109, 186, 187, 223, 228, 232 infinitive, 111, 118, 135, 141, 142, 151, 229, 232, 239, 240, 258, 259, 266 infinitive clauses, 70, 86, 87, 219 infinitive phrase, 219 instead of, 2 1 instrumental adjuncts, 216 intensifiers of the adjective, 76 interrogative determiner, 227 interrogative pronouns, 227 interrogative word, 227 intransitive, 109 intransitive motion verbs, 146 inverted subject, 217 ir, 134 ira, 134 locative, 30, 43, 167 locative adjuncts, 200 locative adverb, 90, 206 locative prepositional phrase, 30 locative relative clauses, 98, 102, 104 manner adjuncts, 214

manner clause, 244

modal adverb, 214 modal verb, 141, 219, 259 monotransitive, 109, 185 names of the days, 207 names of the months, 206, 206<sup>24</sup> natural gender, 25, 26 negation, 221, 222 negative adverbs, 221 non-finite categories, 111, 135 non-finite causal clauses, 253 non-finite comparative clauses, 257 non-finite interrogative clause, 242 non-finite object clauses, 241 non-finite purposive clauses, 250 non-finite subject clause, 239 non-finite temporal clauses, 246 non-finite verb phrase, 141 nonfinite subject clauses, 71 noun, 26, 28, 29, 32, 37, 42, 44, 59, 64, 81, 86,108,193, 260, 266, 267 noun phrase, 9, 26, 30–32, 40, 64, 71, 86, 94, 108, 164, 182, 187, 193, 209, 210, 269 number, 32, 35, 36, 50, 59, 89, 93, 146 numeral, 35, 48, 108 object clause, 151, 158, 159, 241, 242 object noun phrases, 30 object pronoun, 91 omission of the subject, 226 paired body terms, 29, 30 palatalisation, 1, 2 particle, 260 parts of the day, 207 parvaj, 133 passive, 88, 136, 146, 234, 236

manner relative clause, 105

passive verb, 234 passive voice, 88, 135 past counter-factuality, 161 past counterfactual conditional clauses, 256 past factual, 256 past participle, 71, 84, 111, 118, 119, 135–137, 146, 148, 183, 184, 266, 267 perfect indicative, 111, 163 perfect subjunctive, 111, 163 perfect tense, 259 permanent state, 142, 148 permission, 174 personal ending, 111 personal pronoun, 167 place name, 34, 42, 204 pluperfect indicative, 111 pluperfect subjunctive, 111, 163 plural indefinite noun phrases, 35 polite pronoun, 89 polite requests, 174 position of the adjective, 80 positive, 72 possessive, 50, 108 possessive determiner, 37, 50, 52 possessive pronouns, 50, 52 possibility, 177 postpositional phrases, 209 predicative, 1, 40, 42, 52, 67, 69–71, 137, 167 predicative adjective, 67, 84, 137 predicative noun, 42, 169 prepositional argument clauses, 244 prepositional phrase, 86, 99, 108 present, 111 present counter-factuality, 160 present counterfactual conditional clauses, 256

present factual conditional clauses, 256 present indicative, 13, 111, 112, 120, 121, 461 present subjunctive, 111, 131, 134 progressive aspect, 151 prohibitive, 228 pronoun, 40, 42, 43, 45, 48, 62, 64, 87, 236, 240, 260 proximal, 40 prèndar, 134 pudaj, 132 purposive, 50, 152 purposive clauses, 141 quantifier, 33, 37, 57 quantifying nouns, 62, 63 recipient, 183, 184, 187 reciprocal voice, 231 reduced vowel, 69, 126 reduplication, 263, 264 reflexive, 97, 112, 146, 267 reflexive verbs, 111, 230<sup>1</sup> reflexive voice, 112, 230 relative clause, 65, 99, 101, 108, 137, 158, 238 relativiser, 99–102, 104 rí, 135 sadastadá, 131 savaj, 132 ṣchaj, 132 schè, 134, 232 simple tense, 218 speech act verb, 161 spelling system, 3, 9, 18 stative passive, 234 stative verb, 147, 229

stuaj, 133 stá, 131 subject, 6, 42, 44, 52, 65, 71, 87, 90, 91, 106, 107, 109, 135, 136, 138, 142, 146, 159, 169, 179, 180, 182–184, 204, 223, 225, 228, 234 subject clause, 240 subject inversion, 28<sup>2</sup> , 88, 90, 95, 96, 112, 113, 180, 182, 223, 224, 226, 227, 242, 254 subject nouns, 105, 179 subject pronoun, 88, 91, 226 subjunctive mood, 151, 153, 154, 156, 158, 229 subordinating conjunction, 238 subordination, 238 superlative, 61, 72, 73 syllabic, 15 syncretism, 40, 40<sup>8</sup> , 50 tanaj, 133 temporal, 40, 49, 167 temporal adjuncts, 98, 99, 209, 211 temporal adverbs, 137 temporal clause, 241, 248 temporal noun, 47 temporal relative clause, 98, 104, 105 temporal subordinate clause, 140 temporary state, 142 tense agreement, 162 theme, 184 time adverb, 65 topicalise, 142 trá, 131 tumaj, 133 unmarked, 40, 42, 43, 48, 49, 66, 67, 71, 79, 84, 90, 136, 184, 235, 461

vagní, 114 vaj, 112, 146, 148, 224 vaj tga, 163 vasaj, 133 verb, 40, 84, 91, 136, 142, 153, 167, 180, 182, 228, 232, 233, 258, 267 verb of movement, 141, 250 verb phrase, 141 verb phrase negator, 216, 221 verb-second, 223 verb-second syntax, 179 verbs of opinion, 152, 154, 159, 162 verbs of speaking, 151, 152 voiced consonants, 461 voiceless consonants, 15–18 vowels, 11, 12, 12<sup>1</sup> , 13, 14, 18, 20–22, 22<sup>2</sup> , 23, 33, 34, 68 vulaj, 133, 229

# A grammar of Tuatschin

This book is the first descriptive grammar of Tuatschin, a Sursilvan Romansh dialect spoken by approximately 800 people in the westernmost part of the Romansh territory, in the canton of Grisons in southeastern Switzerland. The description is mainly based on narratives and elicitation, collected during fieldwork conducted between 2016 and 2020. Besides the grammatical description, it also offers a variety of narratives produced by female and male native speakers between thirty and eighty years of age.